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MODERN METHODS 

FOR 

TEACHERS 



A TWENTIETH CENTURY HAND-BOOK 

FOR AMERICAN TEACHERS, NORMAL 

SCHOOLS, AND TEACHERS' 

READING CIRCLES 



BY 

CHARLES C. BOYER, Ph.D. 

DBPARTMENT OF PEDAGOGY, KEYSTONE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KUTZTOWN, PA. 



PHILADELPHIA 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



..1 4 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two ODpies Recaived 

DEC 30 1908 

Copyrttnt tntry 
CLASS OU XXc No. 
COPY S. ^ 



Copyright, 1908 
By J. B. LippiNCOTT CoMPAiTsr 



Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company 
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



PREFACE 

Modern methods of teaching are an evolution, a develop- 
ment whose roots reach back into the distant past of Greece 
and Rome and farther, too. Until the art of printing by 
movable type was invented by Gutenberg in 1456, teaching 
was mainly oral. Authoritative statement on the part of 
the teacher and mechanical repetition on the part of the 
pupil were the most convenient steps of the teaching process. 
When this process was reinforced by interrogation, it was 
more to test the memory than to exercise the understanding ; 
for, in those despotic centuries, self-assertion, individuality, 
originality in thinking, were crimes against established 
institutions. 

Although Pythagoras, the philosopher of Crotona, was a 
Greek, and therefore the promise of redemption for individ- 
uality in thought, he had failed to emancipate himself from 
Orientalism in his methods. 

Socrates was the first Greek teacher who proposed to 
make his disciples think for themselves. The method 
which he employed did not begin with statements on the 
part of himself and end with repetition on the part of his 
disciples. On the contrary, he began with what the learner 
knew, ascertaining this through questions. Then, by means 
of other questions, he would force the person questioned 
to think the necessary consequence of earlier admissions. 
After that, earlier and later conclusions were compared. 
In this way he would force the person questioned either to 
contradict himself at last or to reach conclusions that could 
not be refuted. In so far as Socrates paved the learn- 
er's way by causing him to think the new through the old, 
his method was the promise of modem apperception; in so 
far as he taught principles through comparison of experi- 

3 



4 PREFACE 

ences, his metliod was inductive. It is also true that Socrates 
had the captivating personality so desirable in teachers, 
but even he, if we may judge from the evidence at hand, 
did not have so much as the slightest inkling of the intricate 
complications of instruction as a consequence of native in- 
stincts, motor correlations, habit, adolescence, and the rest. 
Comparatively slight as Socratic innovations were, the 
world which he somewhat shaped could not follow him, and 
more than twenty centuries passed before the Oriental spirit 
lost its final hold on Western methods. 

In the meantime, not to speak of the Roman Quintilian's 
keen anticipation, a greater than Pythagoras and Socrates 
had come and gone — Jesus Christ. What has since become 
ideal in the methods of instruction was divinely illustrated 
in the methods used by Christ. The most delicate applica- 
tion of the principles of apperceptive correlations in assign- 
ments and lessons was easy for him who " knew man and 
needed not that anyone should tell him." Divinely cog- 
nizant of all that biology and genetic psychology have lately 
helped us see, he could appeal unerringly to the child's 
initiative in selecting stimuli and directing responses. As- 
suming, as he seems to have done, that education is the pro- 
motion of that natural evolution of man which fits him 
for his destinies as shaped by his needs and foreshadowed 
by his capabilities, he selected courses and methods un- 
erringly. Christ's methods of teaching ushered the world 
into its modern forms, but not at once. Before his methods 
could become universally acceptable the world had to acquire 
at least some likeness to Christ in mental attitude toward 
man and life and nature. 

It was not until the self-emancipating and philanthropic 
spirit of the sixteenth century religious Reformation had 
swept over Europe that methods of teaching began to be 
reformed and perfected in earnest. From that time on, 
through such Christ-like men as Comenius, Pestalozzi, and 
Froebel, until now, man and nature have been subjected 



PREFACE 5 

to the processes of science. With the final coming of 
biology and genetic psychology, the methods of the edu- 
cational reformers have gradually assumed their modern 
shapes. 

The bridge has been broken behind us; we could not 
return to the past if we would, and we would not if we 
could; for the modern teacher, like modern method, is an 
evolution. The modern teacher is the product of the 
centuries of progress behind him, — the heir of the past it 
is true, but the child of the complex, ever-shifting, intense 
present. We can hardly guess what this heir of all the ages 
will make of the future. 

Trusting that his efforts may be helpful, the writer dedi- 
cates this little book on modern methods to modern teachers. 
Respectfully, 

Charles C. Boyee. 

Keystone State Normal Schooi*, 
Kutztown, Pa. 



CONTENTS 

PART I 

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Nature of Education 11-23 

Adolescence, 15; assignment of tasks, 17; books, 14, 20; 
childhood, 13; definition of education, 15; difference in 
capability, 11; emancipation in education, 19, 50; epochs of 
development, 20; habit, 12; infancy, 13; intellectual educa- 
tion, 23; manhood, 13; moral education, 23; physical edu- 
cation, 22; play, 16; promoting natural development, 14; 
race-claims in education, 14; school aims, 12; self -activity 
in education, 16; species of education, 22; stimuli in edu- 
cation, 17; supervision in education, 17; ultimate objects 
of education, 14; work, 16; youth, 13. 

II. Mind 24-26 

Mental operations, 24; thinking, 24; feeling, 25; will, 
26. 

Principles of Culture. — Correlation of faculties, 28; exer- 
cise 27; limits of development, 29; ripening times for fac- 
ulties, 29. 

III. Knowledge , 31-43 

Correlation of sciences, 41; courses of study, 42-43; de- 
duction, 33; facts and principles, 38-40; ideas, 36-38; in- 
duction, 32; knowledge, 31-36; mathematics, 34; mental 
sciences, 35; natural sciences, 34; observation, 32; psychol- 
ogy of science, 31; science, 33; science and philosophy, 41; 
sciences classified, 34; syllogisms, 33. 

IV. Principles of Instruction 44-52 

Adaptation of lessons, 44; complete instruction, 51; eman- 
cipative instruction, 50; interesting lessons, 46; needed 
lessons, 47; right methods, 48; right faculties, 49; right use 
of faculties, 49; special instruction, 50; succession of les- 
sons, 45. 

7 



8 CONTENTS 

PART II 
METHODS OF CULTURE 

CHAPTER I PAGE 

I. Mental Culture v i 55-68 

Attention, 66-68; imagination, 58-60; memory, 56-58; 
perception, 55; sensibility, 62-64; thought, 60-62; will, 
64-66. 

II. Physical Culture 69-80 

Adaptations, 71; athletics, 77-79; correlation of muscles, 
72; courses of physical culture, 73-75; epochs, 72; fatigue, 
76; history of physical culture, 79; home exercises, 79; in- 
door exercises, 74; natural development of the body, 73; 
physiology of physical culture, 69-70; play-ground exercises, 
74; preparations for recitations, 75; recitations, 76; school- 
room exercises, 73-74; value of physical culture, 77-79; vol- 
imtary muscles, 69. 

PART III 

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

I. Object Lessons 83-99 

11. Reading 100-120 

III. Writing 121-135 

IV. Spelling 136-158 

V. Composition 159-177 

VL Grammar 178-203 

VII. Arithmetic 204-234 

VTIL Geography 234-254 

IX. History 254-265 

X. Drawing 266-281 

XL Manual Training 282-295 

XII. Agriculture 296-310 

XIII. Physiology 311-317 

XIV. Singing 318-331 

APPENDIX 

Reference-books fob Collateral Reading 333 

Index 341 



PART I 

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 



Facts are stepping-stones to principles. To know the laws of 
matter and of mind is to understand the past and to see the future. 
Results can then be produced or avoided, almost as we please, as 
soon as we also know how to set the necessary causes into motion. 
Such " knowledge is power," indeed. Such truth sets us free by mak- 
ing man the master both of himself and of the forces in the universe. 



MODERN METHODS FOR 
TEACHERS 



CHAPTER I 
THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 

Capability in General 

The normal child is endowed with capabilities of body 
and mind that make him very promising " raw material " 
for the modern teacher. 

Body. — Subject, of course, to the limits of individuality 
as shaped by parentage and environment, even the ordinary 
child is capable of wonderful development in health and 
strength, or skill of hand and foot. The results obtained 
in special schools for physical culture, manual training, 
and the like, are striking illustrations of the physical per- 
fections of which boys and girls are capable. 

Mind. — Although the mental possibilities of different 
individuals are very different, ranging as they do from 
deficiency to genius (Thorndike 68, Rosenkranz 107), and 
although mental greatness in some spheres of mental action 
depends upon such physical perfections as health and 
strength ("Biography of Great Men"), nevertheless the 
development of which the average mind is capable is simply 
amazing. A great multitude of boys and girls are able 
to master not only high school and college courses but the 
harder courses of the university, and every now and then 
a real philosopher appears in the rank and file. These facts, 
when interpreted, mean that the average individual in our 
schools can be taught to think mathematics, science, lan- 
guage, art, etc. 

11 



12 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Instinct, emotion, and habit have very much to do with 
mental possibilities and probabilities. Such instincts as 
curiosity, play, imitation, motor expression, and competi- 
tion, serve as powerful incentives to the necessary exercise 
of human capabilities. Many of the hearths choicest 
emotions, such as joy, love, and hope, ally themselves with 
and reinforce the instincts as incentives. 

Probably the most hopeful and at the same time the 
most dangerous tendency in human development is the 
tendency to do again, as if by inner impulse, what we 
have repeatedly been doing (James' " Talks to Teachers," 
pages 45-63). 

Habit. — The tendency to repeat, by acquired impulse, 
what we have repeatedly been doing physically or mentally, 
is called " habit,'' from the Latin " habeo," I have, or 
possess. All customary acts of the body and the mind, 
such as modes of speech or thought, rapidly become habits. 
With an impressive start, with caution against lapses, and 
with brave persistence in eager pursuit of high ideals, 
almost any beneficial habit, such as truthfulness, can be 
perfected, and almost any injurious habit, such as im- 
pulsiveness, can be conquered. Among the results which 
invariably arise in connection with the repetitions which 
produce a habit are ease, speed, skill, momentum, regularity, 
and interest, in the order just submitted. After a certain 
amount of practice the correct pronunciation of an English 
word, for example, becomes easy, i.e., the word is pro- 
nounced with less effort. More practice brings speed, i.e., 
it shortens the time of the act in question. With additional 
practice comes the power to pronounce the word not only 
quickly but well. By and by the correct pronunciation of 
the word becomes an acquired impulse, a second nature. 
And then this second nature asserts itself as regularly as 
a clock. Finally that which was hard and awkward and 
ugly at first becomes a real pleasure. (James' " Talks to 
Teachers," 64-78.) 



THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 13 

The General Principles of Education 

The natural development of man, coupled with lifers 
limitations, manifestly determines all obligations and the 
principles that govern us in performing these obligations. 

The Natural Development of Man. — The development 
of any human being from infancy to maturity resembles 
very much the development of the race from infancy to 
its maturity. The stages of development for both are 
infancy, childhood, youth, and maturity. (1) The savage 
is the infant of a race, struggling for physical existence 
and tribal foothold. He must hunt and fish for food, he 
must fight the beasts about him and has human foes. The 
weaker tribe must often perish in the conflict with the 
stronger one. The corresponding period in the life of 
individuals is also physical, formative, and preparatory. 
The food process is fundamental, and the struggle with cold 
and heat and sicknesses and perils often ends in tragedy. 
(2) The second or childhood stage in racial developments 
is a physical extension coupled with institutional beginnings. 
Home-life, social life, government, religion, etc., become 
somewhat organized. Personal childhood is a race-like 
extension, the senses and locomotive powers ripening 
rapidly, coupled with hungry mental life and rapid civili- 
zation. (3) A young nation is a racial youth. This youth 
of a race becomes self-conscious, attains to self-government, 
and reconstructs its institutional life. Personal youth is 
a revolution: self-hood begins to assert its claims, ideals 
undergo tremendous changes, and individuality ripens and 
expands veiy rapidly. (4) Unless inhibited, nationality 
ripens into imperialism. In this stage the nation assumes 
the responsibility of imparting its acquisitions to humanity, 
ambitiously projects itself into international affairs, and 
undertakes to shape centuries. The fully ripened individ- 
ual resembles this ripened nationality. The man who 
remains too small to impart the riches of a ripened life to 



14 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

the world and to the century of which he is a part is hardly 
fully man. In short, the race-line is the life-line of its 
individuals. The thought is very fundamental. 

The Obligations of Education. — The race-line should 
he hrohen and shortened in personal development, (1) 
The claims of the body-life of children deserve profound 
attention and respect. These are the claims of the race 
upon its individuals. Education should not depart too 
violently from the race-claims of the body-life of children, 
nor should it crowd the mental life too rapidly upon the 
body-claims. The child should not be railroaded too rapidly 
out of his world of things into a world of books. (2) 
When, however, the body has had a fair chance to get a 
good start in all its functions and its parts, there should 
be a rapid extension of the mental life into all tlie heritage 
of the race to which the child belongs. In this second 
stage of life, let us say between the age of ten and sixteen, 
the race-line should be purposely shortened by books, 
schools, etc., but without violating body-claims. It is non- 
sense in a life so short as ours to expect boys and girls to 
repeat slavishly and slowly the steps of the centuries in 
science, literature, art, etc. The richer the racial heritage, 
the greater are the responsibilities of the nation to its 
boys and girls. Then, too, the environment of the young 
should be utilized to redeem them from the grip of evil 
ancestry. When evil ancestry projects itself through 
generations, as it does, transplantation from inferior to 
superior environment will modify consumption, conquer 
certain forms of insanity, and overcome heredity in morals. 
To attempt less than this for individuals is to fall short of 
possibilities and to bring nations into disrepute. Moreover, 
worthy individuality, or worthy personal difference, should 
be allowed to triumph over race-uniformity. The remark- 
able differences in our capabilities suggest difference of 
mission and destiny. Those who are responsible have no 
right to ignore these suggestions. (3) We should rever- 



THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 15 

ence the pause that often ushers in adolescence. This is 
Nature's imperative. A multitude of boys and girls are 
buried alive on the threshold of adolescence by teachers 
who do not understand the race-claims on early youth. 
(4) The revolutionary reconstruction of adolescence, or 
youth, should be reverently, wisely supervised. In this 
period God has given us the opportunity as teachers to 
save boys and girls from the moral tragedy of completely 
broken race-claims. It is here that we may help to shape 
the personality of boys and girls by keeping hold of their 
confidence long enough to give them a Pisgah view of life 
beyond the school. This guardianship over the self-ex- 
pansion and the self-extension of a young life is the most 
imperative dictate of reason. 

Definition of Education. — As a consequence of the 
shortness of time to which the process of education must 
be confined, we can not hope to develop all the capabilities 
with which nature has endowed us. Moreover, local and 
temporal necessities largely determine which capabilities 
should be developed. Accordingly, although allowance must 
be made for these limitations, ideally (I) education is that 
promotion of the natural evolution of man tvhich fits him 
for his destiyiies as shaped by his needs and foreshadowed 
by his capabilities. 

The term " education " is derived from the Latin e, out, 
duco, I lead, and tioyi, the act of. In education, as in 
civilization, there must be somebody who selects stimuli 
in the light of ideals, and urges proteges by means of 
these stimuli to act along the lines of destiny, thus pre- 
venting the consequences of blind obedience to impulse and 
caprice. (See O'Shea's "Education as Adjustment," and 
Spencer's " Education.") 

Certain pertinent questions arise from this general state- 
ment of the problem of education. To what extent does 
education depend upon the pupil himself? Why is a 
teacher needed ? What are the ultimate objects of educa- 



16 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

tion? What species of education are possible? The im- 
portant truths involved in the ansv^ers to these questions 
are termed Principles, from the Latin word princepSj 
meaning leader ; and, because these principles resolve them- 
selves into special principles, they are also called General, 
from the Latin genus, meaning a larger class capable of 
subdivisions. 

Self = Activity. — The interest which the pupil takes in 
his lessons, the attention which he pays to instruction, the 
efforts which he makes to master set tasks, especially the 
setting up of tasks with distant ends in view and their 
accomplishment, — all forms of self-help in education are 
conveniently termed self-activity. The highest form of 
self -activity consists of efforts purposely put forth to attain 
ideals. Capacity for such self-activity sharply distinguishes 
normal man from other animals. The normal child un- 
knowingly begins his own education in play, but must 
knowingly complete it in work. 

Play. — ^In play the essential motive is the pleasure 
which it affords, as in skating or croquet. But the full 
worth of play is not to be measured by the pleasure which 
it affords. Play, as Froebel so clearly perceived, develops 
individuality, or self-assertion, through its essential freedom 
of action ; and, as the instinctive exercise of body-parts and 
mental capabilities at their ripening times, play greatly 
promotes health, growth, and strength both of body and of 
mind. 

WoEK. — In work the essential motive is not the pleasure 
which it may or may not afford, but some ulterior object 
such as duty or utility, as in thinking hard or chopping 
wood. Because work eliminates caprice from action, and 
subordinates pleasure to duty or utility, it is the necessary 
complement to play in the development of a perfect in- 
dividuality. While entertainment, change of occupation, 
leisure, and the like, preserve spontaneity of individuality 
and " keep the bow from snapping " in the strenuosity of 



THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 17 

modem school life, work in the shape of reasonable com- 
pulsions, such as hard studies and necessary rules, is 
indispensable as discipline for real life. 

Summing up, we may say that (II) self-activity in the 
form of play and work, or their equivalents, is the basis of 
education. 

Supervision. — At first, and in many instances for a 
long time, pupils can not estimate their present powers 
accurately nor foresee just what they should become by 
and by ; they do not know what to do, why, nor how. This 
being the case, they will waste their energies, lose their 
way, and may give up in despair or confusion. For these 
reasons pupils need the supervision of somebody who 
knows them individually, the supervision of somebody with 
correct ideals, who is authorized to decide what should be 
done, somebody who shall provide the needed stimuli, direct 
the responses, remove limitations, and thus in due time 
enable them to get on without him. In short, (III) 
effective supervision is the necessary supplement of self- 
activity in education. Just how the modern teacher en- 
deavors to accomplish his tasks, is to be explained in the 
paragraphs that follow. 

Assignments. — Among the items to be considered in 
assignments to pupils are the difficulty of the task to be 
performed, the present ability of the pupils, their probable 
mental attitude toward the task assigned, the teacher's 
ability to find the stimuli needed to win the active consent 
of pupils in question, the amount of time at the disposal 
of pupils in the preparation of tasks assigned, the local 
environment of the study periods, the possibilities of the 
recitation periods, the probable effects which the responses 
required of pupils in the performance of assigned tasks will 
have on their individual development, and the suitability 
of the assignments themselves as means to ends in the 
larger processes of education. 

^ Stimuli. — For younger pupils, as child study shows, 
2 



18 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

motor-expression is the most effective stimulus. In other 
words, the child instinctively loves to do something, to 
act his ideas, to express with his body, hands, feet, or 
tongue, what he thinks, feels, and wills. Branches like 
reading, drawing, writing, spelling, singing, and the like, 
become very fascinating to children through appeals to 
this instinct because we thus add a play-quality to work. 
Illustrations, too, are interesting for the same reason, and 
also because, as we shall see in Chapter III, the abstract 
can be understood only through the concrete. To motor- 
expression and illustrations as stimuli for younger pupils 
we must add imitation and competition, both of them often 
serving as stimuli to motor-expression and supplementing 
play-pleasure, as we see in class work. In as much as the 
instincts of imitation and competition serve important pur- 
poses all through life, the teacher should not only use these 
instincts as school incentives, but also strive to make the 
former intelligent and the latter unselfish. With proper 
precautions the love of esteem becomes a powerful school 
incentive. In many boys and girls the moral sense ripens 
early, and serves as an effective stimulus. 

When the reasoning instinct begins to monopolize the 
pupil's mind, as it normally does in early adolescence, books 
as well as things become fascinating, but like work and 
play the two should not be separated very far. When love 
of books ripens slowly and late, we may look for other 
abnormal delays in development. Early adolescence, ac- 
cordingly, is usually the best epoch in life for branches like 
arithmetic, grammar, languages, and the like. In this 
period ripening individuality is somewhat equivalent to 
pugnacity, for which reason the conquest of difficulties 
becomes very attractive. The modern teacher will not 
overlook this opportunity. 

However, what most pupils need most as a stimulus is 
a teacher. The mere fact that pupils are expected to 
report to the teacher in the recitation serves as a stimulus. 



THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 19 

The effect is magnified by the fact that in the recitation his 
mind unites with theirs in lesson attacks. The sympathetic, 
lovable, and really superior teacher, is an incomparable 
stimulus. 

Emancipation". — The great purpose of modern teachers 
is to emancipate the pupil, i.e., to help the pupil to help 
himself more and more until he needs no more help from 
others in his own development. The j)upil must therefore 
be put into the best possible physical condition, obstructions 
which are really insurmountable to him must be removed, 
he must learn to think by means of books and how to use 
his mental capabilities, and in the crises of his natural 
development his personality must be shaped by superior 
personality. 

In view of the intimate relations of the body and the 
mind, the pupil's general health should be promoted; 
special care should be taken of his eyes, ears, nose, and 
throat; in his study hours he should be protected from 
distractions and annoyances in surroundings; that time 
of the day in which it is easiest to command the kind of 
attention we most need in the recitation of any branch 
is, of course, to be used for that recitation; and the school 
room should be made a physical delight (Kirkpa trick's 
"Fundamentals of Child Study"). 

When the learner comes to a " dead halt " in a lesson, 
the modern way to remove obstructions, i.e., to help the 
pupil help himself, is to pave the way for him by means 
of reviews, suggestive illustrations, pertinent questions, 
hints, etc., rather than by doing for him what we could 
get him to do for himself. This procedure is technically 
called apperception, as we shall learn more fully in Chapter 
V, and is always more professional than direct instruction 
except in such cases where apperceptive instruction is 
either impossible or an unreasonable waste of time. (See 
Quick's "Educational Eeformers," page 224, and Hins- 
dale's " Art of Study," page 226.) 



20 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

It takes long to teach the pupil to read, i.e.^ to think 
bj means of books, but the more effectively this task is 
accomplished the more complete is the pupil's educational 
emancipation. This ability enables him to think between 
recitations, at home, and after he must leave school; it 
becomes possible for him to think the thoughts of the 
masters, and thus to make himself an heir of the ages 
in science, language, literature, philosophy, etc. From this 
view-point supplementary reading books and school libraries 
become startlingly important. Through judicious " supple- 
mentary readers '' reading usually becomes a pleasure and 
through school libraries a habit. After that the " graduate " 
is more likely to collect a home library and to consult 
public libraries in his post-graduate life. To emancipate the 
pupil in science studies, such as biology, we must not only 
teach him to think by means of books but by means of 
experiments. He must be taught to find the materials 
needed in experiments, how to study specimens, how to 
discover likeness or law by comparing specimens, how to 
record discovered facts and conclusions, and how to apply 
the results to useful purposes in life. If in addition to 
the power to read and investigate for himself the pupil 
also acquires enough motor education for his practical 
needs, his educational emancipation is pretty complete. 

There are well defined epochs in the normal develop- 
ment of boys and girls, as we shall learn more fully in 
Chapter II. The teaching process must be more or less 
specially adapted to each of these natural epochs, while 
the abnormal developments and monopolies more or less 
frequently ushered in with these epochs make the teach- 
ing process very hard. The modern teacher must not only 
be " on the lookout " for these epochs and the possible 
surprises coming with them, but he must be fully prepared 
to do the right thing at the right time. He must deal very 
patiently, for example, with defectives, dullards, and de- 
linquents. He must make a special study of every adoles- 



THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 31 

cent, i.e._, of every pupil in the later ^^ teens." When he 
finds '^ adolescent pause " he must wait on ISTature in his 
school requirements, and when he finds " adolescent stress," 
i.e. J a pugnacious or rebellious individuality, he must try 
his utmost to command respect through superior training 
and to dominate over such individuality only by superior 
personality and inspiring ideals. The teacher who can 
adapt himself to these epoch difficulties will have large 
graduating classes. (See ^^ Hall's Adolescence," Vol. II, 
page 554.) 

Briefly stated (IV) the pupiVs emancipation must he 
gradually effected through the stimulations and instructions 
of superiors. And the superiority must, of course, be 
commensurate with the tasks involved. 

Ultimate Objects and Proximate Aims. — The ultimate 
or final purposes of education will, of course, determine 
proximate or nearer aims. 

From the strong desire to be happy now and hereafter 
and the startling multitude of God's provisions for such 
happiness (see Liibbock's " Pleasures of Life "), we infer 
that happiness is one of the attributes of the life complete 
which God has planned for us. 

God, as moral science and experience teach, has made it 
possible for man to know the right from the wrong, and 
to choose for ourselves in life. From this, and from God's 
holiness, as we learn of it in E'ature and Holy Writ, we 
must infer that He will hold us responsible. This inference 
is confirmed by the fact that we can not be truly happy 
unless we try to be truly good, and still more by the well- 
nigh universal faith in immortality. Thus goodness is 
to be an attribute of life complete. 

The world in which we live makes it necessary for the 
great majority of men and women to do something or 
other for a living, to contribute something to the suste- 
nance of those who can not help themselves, and something 
to the betterment of the world at large. We must try to 



22 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

fit ourselves for various occupations, trades, positions, and 
professions. Those who fail in these requirements fall be- 
hind in life's rugged ways, become a burden to society, or 
perchance, betray the holy ties that bind them to loved ones 
and to society at large — the community, the church, the 
state. Thus usefulness in some shape or other is to be an 
attribute of the life complete (see Dewey's '^ School and 
Society"). 

If education is an evolutionary, i.e., a completing pro- 
cess, as defined on page 15, the ultimate objects of education 
must evidently be identical with the ends of life complete 
as planned for us by God. Accordingly, (V) tJie ultimate 
objects of education are happiness^ goodness, and usefuhiess. 
Any system of education that ignores these purposes either 
in its processes or consequences is, to say the least, very 
incomplete. 

School Aims. — The special aims of education — school 
aims, as we may call them — must, of course, be subordinate 
to the final aims as means to ends. All those forms of 
physical and mental development, or culture, which help us 
live completely are among the worthy school aims. Some 
of these are health of body and mind, strength enough to 
work hard with mind and body, skill enough in mechanical 
or artistic manipulations, a multitude of good habits and 
worthy interests. With culture must be combined, if pos- 
sible, such knowledge of nature, God, and man, as serves 
the ends of life as planned by God (see Thorndike's 
" Principles of Education," pages 3-6, and the K E. A. 
Keport of 1903, pages 46-54). 

Species of Education". — The number of man's powers 
and the ends to be kept in view in the cultivation of these 
powers, determine the possible species of education. 

Physical education has to do with the body; it aims to 
make the body a fit abode and instrument of the mind. 
As a means to these ends a training in physiology, physical 
culture, and mechanic arts is indispensable. 



THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 23 

Intellectual education has to do with the thinking and 
knowing powers of the mind; it aims to develop these 
powers into fit instruments of life. As a means to this 
end, both general and special courses of study are necessary. 

Moral education has to do with building character, i.e., 
with will training into subordination to ideals of utility, 
beauty, duty, and religion. The corresponding sub-species 
of moral education are termed practical, aesthetic, ethical, 
and religious. As means to these ends of moral education 
the pupil needs to be trained in the useful arts and sciences, 
in aesthetics and the fine arts, in personal and social virtues, 
and in religion. Religion as a most effective stimulus in 
moral education, and because it brings the soul into per- 
sonal relations with God, is the highest form of education. 
All species of moral education begin with intellect, and the 
corresponding emotions, or mental feelings, thus waked 
up solicit the will. And all these activities combined into 
conduct constitute the moral life of man (see Rosenkranz's 
" Philosophy of Education," and MacCunn's " The Making 
of Character ''). 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. The Teacher's Motives. Horace Mann, N. E. A. Report, 1858. 

2. Child Study. G. Stanlay Hall, N. E. A. Report, 1894. 

3. The Cultivated Man. C. W. Eliot, N. E. A. Report, 1903. 

4. The Making of a Teacher. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, 1905. 

5. Principles of Teaching. Thorndike, New York, 1906. 

6. Aspects of Child Life and Education. Hall, Boston, 1907. 

7. A Broader Elementary Education. Gordy. Publishers, Hinds & 
Noble. 

8. The Ideal School. Search. Publisher, Appleton. 

9. Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals. James. Publisher, 
Henry Holt. 

10. Education as Adjustment. O'Shea. 

11. Fundamentals of Child Study. Kirkpatrick. 



CHAPTER II 
MIND 

It must he evident enough to any one who observes 
himself in the concrete, that thinking, feeling, and willing 
are not physical phenomena, i.e., phenomena of matter. 
In other words, it is not our body that thinks, feels, and 
wills ; it is the " self " whom we call '' I,'' which self is 
also known as mind, soul, spirit. Although in most intimate 
junction with the body in which it dwells and which it 
employs, the mind, notwithstanding certain statements to 
the contrary, is not really the " function " of the body, but 
a distinct entity that itself has functions. 

Mental Functions, or Faculties. — The acts of which 
the mind is capable are known as mental functions, while 
the capabilities themselves are termed mental faculties. 
Although we should never think of the mind as having 
separable parts like a watch, the acts of which the mind 
is capable can be classified for convenience. On the basis 
of most fundamental distinctions, fully set forth by psychol- 
ogists, we may classify the mental faculties, as has com- 
monly been done, under intellect, sensibility, and will, 
hereby denoting respectively thinking, feeling, and willing 
faculties. (See Dr. Deatrick's " The Human Mind and Its 
Physical Basis.") 

In^tellect. — The intellectual acts of which the mind is 
capable, classified on the basis of the " stuff " upon which 
the mind can make attacks in thinking, i.e., in arriving at 
ideas and relating them, are as follows: (1) perception, the 
act of thinking the sensible present, as in looking at a rose, 
(2) memory, the act of thinking the past again, as in 
recognizing faces, (3) imagination, the act of thinking 
combinations that merely resemble sensible experience, as in 
24 



MIND 25 

reading novels or in dreaming, (4) judgment, the act of 
thinking likeness or unlikeness by direct comparison, as 
estimating length or weight by sight, (5) reasoning, the 
act of thinking relations and their consequences, as in 
arguments that end in the discovery of causes, laws, and 
effects, and (6) self-consciousness, the act of thinking the 
present experiences of the mind as self. 

Some of the faculties just defined have special names 
when specially employed. The intellectual phase of con- 
science, sometimes called the " moral sense,'' is judgment 
employed in thinking the morally good or bad ; the intellec- 
tual phase of taste, sometimes called the aesthetic sense, 
is judgment employed in thinking the beautiful or ugly. 
The judging and reasoning capacities are jointly termed 
the power of thought, or understanding. The term 
" Keason " is used to denote the mental capability of 
thinking true relations. 

Seitsibilitt. — The feelings of which the mind is capable 
are termed Emotions, from the Latin e, out, and moveo, I 
move, while the capability itself is termed Sensibility, or 
Heart. The emotions have been variously classified by 
psychologists to suit special purposes. The following clas- 
sification serves the purpose of the present chapter: (1) 
the simple emotions, i.e., states of mental pleasure or pain 
of whose cause the mind may not be consciously aware, as 
cheerfulness or melancholy ; (2) affections, i.e., the states of 
being mentally moved toward others, as in friendship or 
enmity. To distinguish these mental movements toward 
other persons from the simple, or subjective, or egoistic 
emotions, they are often termed objective emotions, and 
may be either benevolent or malevolent. (3) The third 
class of emotions are the desires, i.e., the mental demand 
of that which pleases us, as in avarice, ambition, etc. 
Desire for things which produce pleasant sensations, as food 
when we are hungry, is termed appetite. Desires which, 
like jealousy, amount to suffering, or sweep us from our 



26 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

voluntary moorings, are termed passions. The feeling of 
value to which the mind is moved by certain sensible im- 
pressions, is termed interest, as when we hear a lovely 
voice. Our native interests are termed instincts, among 
which are the pleasures which novelty, play, imitation, 
motor-expression, competition, acquisition, hope, etc., 
afford. (4) The fourth class of emotions are termed 
expectations, like hope, i.e., desires coupled with faith in 
their attainment. Expectation coupled with opposition is 
termed fear. 

Will. — The ability to determine mentally what shall 
take place is termed will, and any exercise of will is 
termed willing, or volition, as when we decide to study 
a lesson. The decision is the end of the voluntary struggle 
between alternatives, as when after long hesitation between 
two possible courses of action we choose the useful rather 
than the easy course. Stimuli which provoke voluntary 
struggle between possible courses of action, but which do 
not fatally determine our decision, are termed motives, as 
when a man gives up cigarettes in spite of the temptation 
to continue. Attention and intention are the most import- 
ant forms of voluntary action. Attention is the voluntary 
selection of one object of thought to the exclusion of all 
others. Intention is the present decision to attend to some- 
thing future. Intention promotes attention, as we see in 
boys who cherish high ambitions. 

Principles of Culture 

It is possible, as experiments show, to promote the devel- 
opment of which the pupil is capable. In other words, the 
pupil can be quickened, strengthened, and otherwise per- 
fected in his actions. These desirable results, as well as 
the process through which they must be effected, are termed 
culture, and the laws to which the mind in its development 
is subject are known as principles of culture. 



MIND 27 

Exercise. — Practice quickens the pianist's movements, 
strengthens the blacksmith's arm, perfects the athlete's 
muscles. " Practice," as we say, " makes perfect." Exer- 
cise in thinking makes the thinker quicker in his line of 
thinking, exercise in cheerfulness makes cheerfulness much 
easier, practice in attention to details of any kind improves 
the power to attend to such details most amazingly. 

JsTatural development is retarded by inactivity, as in 
the case of idleness. Although young swallows caged until 
the time when ordinarily the flying instinct should have 
become less clamorous fly as well when released as others, 
the fact that cave fishes have only rudimentary eyes and 
the strange case of Caspar Hauser seem to show that 
capabilities wholly deprived of exercise are not only re- 
tarded but finally lost. This is certainly largely true of 
acquired strength, skill, habits, interests, etc. 

A multitude of facts like those enumerated force us to 
conclude that (I) the appropriate exercise of any capability 
promotes its development. The universality, i.e., relative 
absence of exceptions to this law, startlingly emphasizes 
the importance of observing it. 

The Exact Effects of Exercise. — It has been found 
by specialists that practice in remembering one kind of 
facts, such as names, does not also improve us to the same 
degree for facts of another sort, such as faces; that prac- 
tice in judging the size of surfaces of one shape does not 
also equally improve us in judging surfaces of other shapes ; 
that practice in one kind of reasoning, as mathematics, 
does not also equally improve reasoning in other lines, as 
grammar ; that the accuracy which pupils acquire in school 
work, as in penmanship or spelling, will not always extend 
itself to tasks outside of school ; etc. The reason is not far 
to seek, namely, the unlikeness of the data upon which the 
faculty is set to work. The organs of the body, like the 
mental faculties, obey this law to a surprising extent. 



28 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

On the other hand, exercise in adding, as we all know, 
does not only perfect the ability to add, but also the 
ability to multiply, because multiplication is largely addi- 
tion. The translating power which comes from the study 
of Latin is a help in learning French because many of 
the facts learned in the former are needed in the latter. 
In general, educated men and women have immense ad- 
vantages simply because the tasks which they mastered 
in the process of their education were so much like those 
of real life. 

Summing up the two sides we may briefly say that 
(II) the likeness of the data upon which a faculty is exer- 
cised determines the likeness of effect. In view of this law 
the importance of thoroughly adapting the curriculum of 
schools can hardly be overestimated. 

CoKEELATiON OF FACULTIES. — Observing teachers know 
not only that the organs of the body, take the heart for 
example, can be strengthened and perfected easiest when 
supported by related organs like the kidneys, but also that 
the senses improve more rapidly when reinforced by atten- 
tion, as in object lessons; that a better sort of memory 
results from exercise for which comparison paves the way, 
as in mastering declensions; that high attainments in 
reasoning depend upon the strong support of imagination, 
as in geometry; that splendid growth in sensibility is im- 
possible apart from intellect; and that a far more perfect 
type of will can be developed in connection with emotional 
intensity, as in working out ambitions. Facts like these 
go to show that (III) to develop any faculty completely 
the exercise must he reinforced hy related faculties. To 
fall into the hands of a teacher who can not effect these 
necessary correlations is a calamity. 

Natural Order. — In early life, as Lukens, Ricci, and 
other scientists teach us, blind instincts and individual im- 
pulses tend to substitute themselves for the logical order 
of thinking. Surprising and apparently evil tendencies 



MIND 29 

break the line of upward progress. Intellectual and 
moral aptitudes apparently safe from relapse suddenly grow 
paralyzed. A period of physical and mental " pause," 
probably for preparation, as Dr. Ellis shows, precedes the 
mighty adolescent upheaval which, as Dr. Stanley Hall 
and others show, is probably the greater birthday of 
maturity. Even the ordinary " rate of growth " in apti- 
tudes is somewhat variable, as observing teachers know. 

In spite of these irregularities, the natural order of 
development is fairly constant. Intellectually we ripen 
first in perception, followed in order by memory, imagina- 
tion, judgment, reasoning, and self -consciousness. Influ- 
enced very much by heredity and experience, the emotions 
ripen from the sensuous to the ideal, and the impulsive 
will of childhood to the rationality of manhood. 

Investigation tends to show that (IV) the ripening time 
is the best time for developing a faculty. The hunger of 
early childhood for facts of all descriptions, the delight of 
early youth in fiction, the ease with which geometry is 
mastered in the early '^ teens," the late arriving enthu- 
siasm for psychology, and a multitude of familiar facts, 
proves the generality of this law. It is therefore of the 
utmost importance to supply each ripening faculty w^ith 
abundant data in the curriculum for effective exercise. 
With the subsidence of the hungry instincts that herald 
forth the ripening time of every faculty, the greater pos- 
sibilities of the faculty are lost. 

The Limits of Developmeintt. — Although exercise pro- 
motes it can not create. In other words, (V) the possibilities 
of development are limited by individuality, i.e., by the 
" I " as a special personality, influenced by heredity and 
experience. 

The difference is often startling, as we saw in Chapter I. 
Some can reason better, some are capable of splendid 
emotions, some are giants in volition. Some of us are, 
therefore, " philosophers born," or poets, artists, orators. 



30 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

conquerors. Nations, too, have an individuality. Greece 
excelled in fine arts, Kome in making laws, Germany in 
deep philosophy, England in empire building, America 
in developing of resources. Centuries of subjection injured 
the possibilities of the Chinese and the ISTegro. The great 
task of modern education is to ascertain individual pos- 
sibilities and develop them up to the limits. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Principles of Teaching. Thorndike. Seiler. 



CHAPTER III 
KNOWLEDGE 

Whatever It may be, mental or otherwise, upon which 
the mind is intent in thinking — i.e., in arriving at ideas or 
mental representatives, and their relation — is termed an 
^^ object of thought," as hope, roses, conclusions about 
earthquakes, etc. To be in accord in what we think with 
the object of thought, is to " know," or to have ^^ knowledge," 
as when in thinking of hope, roses, conclusions, etc., we are 
not mistaken as to their nature and the results. Accord- 
ingly^, knowledge consists (1) of ideas that are true to an 
" object of thought," and (2) of thoughts, i.e., of compari- 
sons in which some idea is predicated of another, as when 
we mentally affirm — and not mistakenly — that Venus is a 
planet, or that mignonettes are not violets. As illustrated 
in these examples, thoughts in which the mind is not mis- 
taken are termed " truths." A ^' particular " truth, or 
" fact," is a truth with regard to individuals, as Many boys 
go to college. A " general truth," or " principle," is a truth 
about a genus, i.e., all related individuals, as All robins 
are birds. The technical or special term used for knowl- 
edge resulting from exact examination of individuals, their 
relation, and the consequence of their relation, is " science," 
from the Latin scire, to know. One mark of the modern 
teacher is the purpose to promote exact or scientific knowl- 
edge. He must therefore fully understand the steps of the 
scientific process and the results. 

The Psychology of Science 

When subjected to analysis the scientific process resolves 
itself into three distinct steps, namely, observation, induc- 
tion, and deduction. 

31 



32 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Observation. — (1) In scientific or complete observation, 
individuals, or specimens of a class, like areas, plovers, 
" I's," are analyzed into parts to discover attributes and 
actions. Individuals like plants, or parts of individuals 
like colors, are combined to discover consequences which 
otherwise might never have been known, as in chemistry. 
The facts thus discovered are recorded, as when we say 
" These mother robins carefully fed their offspring," " This 
I can think, feel, and will." (2) The examination of indi- 
viduals which ends in discovery of facts, is followed by 
detection of identity, or likeness, — if there is any, — ^between 
the examined individuals. This identity may be one of 
attribute, as when we find that " These roses are fragrant," 
or one of relation, as when we find that the proportion 
between two algebraic quantities is that of two to one. 

Induction. — The discovery of identity, or likeness, 
between individuals is followed by the most startling mental 
act of which we can conceive, namely, the conclusion that 
what is true of examined individuals of a class like roses, 
areas, or I's, is probably true of most or all individuals of 
the class, whether we can ever examine them or not, as 
when we say All roses grow on bushes. The area of all 
triangles is equal to the base multiplied by one-half the 
altitude, All I's can think, feel, and will. Such generic, or 
class conclusions, usually termed hypotheses, must, of course, 
often be verified by further observations, as in the case of 
IsTewton's falling apples, and the verifying process, as we 
shall see presently, is deduction. The whole process of 
coming to generic conclusions is termed Induction, from 
the Latin in, into, and duco, I lead. 

Perhaps the inductive impulse, universal as it seems to 
be, is really instinctive. Whether this be true or not, the 
likeness between individuals of any class in N"ature is so 
extensive that perfect individuals commonly represent the 
class. In as much, however, as this " imiformity of 
]N"ature " is not without exceptions, the conclusions of 



KNOWLEDGE 33 

induction, even if they be based upon extensive observa- 
tion, must be accepted very cautiously, as in all the empiri- 
cal, or experimental sciences. 

The generic conclusions to which induction leads are tech- 
nically termed Principles. These principles are sometimes 
termed definitions, sometimes laws, etc. When a principle 
is the description of a class it is termed a Definition, as in 
telling what an island or noun is. A mode of procedure 
which is found to be convenient in performing all the 
tasks of a class is termed a Rule, as in Arithmetic or society. 
The invariable behavior of a cause is termed a Law, as. 
Water flows down hill. 

Deduction. — The final mental step of science, termed 
^^ deduction," from the Latin de, from, and duco, is capable 
of great exactness, provided certain " laws of logic " are 
obeyed. Deduction is the assumption that whatever is true 
of a class of individuals must be true, in a measure at least, 
of included but not examined individuals in question, as 
when w^e argue that if all water consists of hydrogen and 
oxygen, tliis drop of w^ater must consist of these elements. 
Some sciences, as mathematics, are more largely deductive 
and therefore easier, while most of the sciences are more 
largely inductive and therefore harder, as we shall see in 
the section on Principles of Knowledge. 

Defixition" of Science. — In 'process science consists of 
ohservation^ induction, and deduction; the results are facts, 
principles, and inclusions. In short, science is classified 
knowledge. 

Syli^ogisms. — Both induction and deduction can be 
technically stated in the form of arguments termed Syllo- 
gisms, from the Greek ffov together, and Xoyi^ofiat I 
reason. As an illustration of inductive syllogisms, take (1) 
These grapes grow on vines, (2) These grapes are like all 
grapes, (8) All grapes grow on vines. As an illustration of 
deductive syllogisms take (1) All animals need water, (2) 
This mouse is an animal, (3) This mouse needs water. 
3 



34 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

The first two judgments of a syllogism are termed 
premises, from the Latin pre, before, and mitto, I send. 
The relation of likeness between the individuals of the first 
and second premises is denoted by a " middle," or repeated 
term, as " these grapes " in the inductive and " animal " in 
the deductive syllogisms. 

Classification of the Sciences 

There are, of course, as many sciences as there are classes 
of individuals to which the process of science can be applied, 
but, broadly speaking there are three and only three classes 
of sciences. This conclusion is based on the fact that, so 
far as we know, there are three and only three fundamen- 
tally distinct "objects of thought," namely, (1) matter as 
quantity, (2) matter as subject to forces, and (3) mind. 

Mathematics. — The science of quantity is termed Math- 
ematics, from the Greek iiadeTv, to learn. The primary 
subdivisions of mathematics are Geometry, the science of 
form; Arithmetic, the science of numbers; Algebra, the 
science of equations. There are many special subdivisions. 

Natural Sciences. The sciences concerned with the 

forces to which matter is subject " by Nature " are termed 
the ^Natural Sciences. 

Physical Sciences. — The natural sciences concerned 
with forces other than life itself are termed Physical 
Sciences. The primary subdi^dsions of the physical sciences 
are Physics, the science of molecular forces ; Chemistry, the 
science of atomic forces : Mineralogy, the science of mineral 
formations; Geology, the science of the earth's formation; 
and Astronomy, the science of the heavenly bodies. 

BioLOGiCAii Sciences. — The sciences concerned with life 
in corporeal organisms are termed Biological Sciences, or 
simply Biology, from the Greek /Jr'o?, life, and Ad^'o?, 
science. The primary subdivisions of biology are Botany, 
the science of plant life; Zoology, the science of animal 
life ; and Physiology, the science of the animal life of man. 



KNOWLEDGE 35 

Geography, the science of the earth as the home of man, 
is to a very great extent an eclectic science, its subjects of 
study being found in various domains of nature and history. 

Mental Sciences. — The sciences concerned with mind 
and mental action are termed Mental Sciences. The pri- 
mary subdivisions of mental science are Psychology, the 
science of mental phenomena; Logic, the science of the 
" True " ; -Esthetics, the science of the " Beautiful " ; 
Ethics, the science of the " Good " ; and History, the science 
of " Events." 

Language. — The words, sentences, and discourse by 
means of which we express what we think, feel, and will, 
are termed Language. The application of the science proc- 
ess to the various aspects of language gives rise to many 
special sciences such as reading, writing, spelling, grammar, 
rhetoric, etc. Writings whose form and content are of per- 
manent and universal interest are technically known as 
Literature. 

Art. — The physical construction of knowledge is termed 
Art. Thus we speak of the arts of writing, drawing, music, 
painting, architecture, printing, agriculture, etc. Those 
arts whose chief end is Beauty are termed Fine Arts, as 
music and sculpture. Those arts whose chief end is Utility 
are termed Useful Arts, as agriculture and manufacturing. 

Philosophy. — Master minds of all ages have tried to 
arrive at the ultimate principles of the physical and moral 
universe. In these attempts it was often found necessary 
to criticise both the methods and the conclusions of the 
various sciences. This critical inquiry into the possibility, 
certainty, and limits of knowledge, is termed Philosophy. 

Theology. — The science of God is termed Theology. 
Theology is properly classified as a mental science, but may 
employ all others. !N"atural Theology attempts to know God 
through E'ature as his work. Eevealed Theology approaches 
God through the Holy Scriptures. Religion is theology in 
the concrete. 



36 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 



Principles of Knowledge 

The laws according to which knowledge develops in the 
mind, are termed Principles of Knowledge. These prin- 
ciples are ascertained by inquiry into the constitution of 
knowledge. 

Ideas and Names. — The reader of this page may not 
know the names of some parts of the pair of scissors on the 
table before him, and yet be quite familiar with the quali- 
ties and uses of those parts. The difficulty of finding words 
to express certain ideas is a common experience. In the 
natural course of things names are quite unnecessary in 
forming ideas, and are subsequently added to ideas to 
record and communicate them. The possibility of writing, 
speaking, and spelling words before their meaning are 
kno\vn, is only an apparent exception to the law exhibited 
in the foregoing collection of facts ; in such cases of spell- 
ing, etc., words are simply so many sounds, marks, etc., 
and not really names or signs or symbols of ideas. Thus 
we infer that (I) ideas precede names and signs. In 
accordance with this principle new words should generally 
be introduced in connection with the objects, qualities, 
actions, and ideas of which they are the names. The rule 
should be: The idea first, and then the name. The viola- 
tion of this simple law has many penalties. 

Concrete and Abstract Ideas. — Our first idea of such 
qualities as redness, hardness, gratitude, etc., came to us 
in connection with beings that were red, hard, grateful, etc., 
i.e., they were direct experiences, and are therefore termed 
Concrete. The act of mentally drawing the qualities of 
things from their Concrete or objective connections, is 
termed Abstraction, from the Latin ah, away, and tralio, I 
draw, as when the mind is intent on rose fragrance to the 
neglect, for the time being, of the rose as an object. The 
resulting quality-ideas are termed Abstract Ideas. In other 
words, (II) concrete ideas precede abstract ideas, the 



KNOWLEDGE 37 

former being necessary mental stepping stones to the latter. 
It is possible, of course to have approximately correct ideas 
of qualities that were never experienced in the concrete, pro- 
vided that these ideas are products of synthesis, analysis, 
etc., of other experiences. In such cases, however, the ideas 
at which the mind arrives are likely to be vague and even 
false. According to this principle the first duty of instruc- 
tion is to develop such concrete ideas as the pupil's mind 
shall need in order to think desired abstract ideas, and the 
second duty is to transform the concrete ideas into the 
desired abstract ideas. In this process the pupil should not 
be hurried beyond his capability, nor should he be allowed 
to remain too long in the concrete. In the first case con- 
fusion will result; in the second, intellectual shortage. 
Since, as we shall see, perfect abstraction is indispensable 
to generalization, i.e., thinking genus ideas, the principle 
just stated, and its requirements, are among the most im- 
portant things in the problem of education. 

Particular and General Ideas. — Our first knowledge 
of oranges, friends, etc., was a knowledge of experienced 
individuals. A cumulative mental synthesis resulted from 
subsequent abstractions, and we grew more and more accus- 
tomed to think of oranges, friends, etc., in classes. This 
cumulative process is termed Conception, from the Latin 
con, together, and capio, I take, or Generalization, from the 
Latin genus, class. When the individuals rather than the 
mental process is emphasized in our attention, conception 
or generalization is termed Classification. In short, (III) 
particular ideas, or percepts, precede gen&ral ideas, or con- 
cepts. According to this principle the development of gen- 
eral ideas, which, as the psychology of science shows, is very 
important in our education, requires thorough observation 
of individuals that represent the genus. Careful observa- 
tion must, however, be supplemented by equally careful 
induction as means to ends. 



38 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Ideas and Truths. — In the sentence expression of a 
judgment, or thought, at least one idea must be predicated 
of at least one other idea, as when we say The rose is a plant. 
In other words, thoughts are made up of ideas as materials. 
To put it in another way, (IV) ideas precede truths, i.e,, 
thoughts in which the mind is not mistaken. According 
to this principle those ideas which must be presupposed 
in the formation of any judgment, or thought, should be 
developed before the attempt is made to form the judgment 
in question. The violation of this principle has brought 
innumerable woes to pupils in reading, arithmetic, gram- 
mar, geometry, etc. 

Facts and Principles. — Particular truths, or facts, as 
explained in the psychology of science, are the truths at 
which the mind arrives through examination of individuals, 
as, These apples grew on trees. In as much as such examina- 
tion of individuals must always precede the comparison 
through which the mind arrives at general truths or prin- 
ciples, it is obvious that (V) 'particular truths, or facts, 
precede general truths, or principles, as when we compare 
the apples which we examine and find so much likeness 
that we jump at the generic conclusion that, All apples grow 
on trees. Such generic conclusions, or principles, are of 
vast importance to life, because they aid us in the compre- 
hension and management of practical details. They should 
therefore be as free from error as possible. To make sure 
of these results in teaching, we should safeguard both the 
observation which prepares for comparison of individuals 
and also the comparison itself. 

Order of Facts of Sciences. — The facts with which the 
inductions of mathematics and natural science begin, as, The 
circumference of these circles is 3.1416 times the diameter, 
and, These pears are hearl- shaped, are both ascertained 
through perceptive observation, and the ability to succeed in 
such observation is not difficult to develop. On the other 
hand, the facts with which the inductions of mental science 



KNOWLEDGE 39 

begin, as, The mind of these boys responds readily to audi- 
tory stimuli, can often be ascertained only through elab- 
orate tests, and the ability to succeed in such observa- 
tion depends not only upon maturity of self-consciousness 
but also upon special training. Thus we conclude that 

(VI) the facts of mathematics and natural science precede 
the facts of mental science. According to this principle 
elementary instruction should begin with object lessons 
correlated with motor-expression in numbers, reading, writ- 
ing, spelling, etc. 

Order of Principles of Sciences. — The great generic 
truths, or principles of mathematics were known to the 
ancients. The natural sciences have only lately begun to 
mature in generic thought. Some of the mental sciences 
are even now only in their infancy. This order stands out 
as the law of the sciences, and may be stated as follows: 

(VII) the principles of mathematics precede the principles 
of natural and mental sciences. The relation of the sciences 
makes this order a logical necessity; (1) The natural 
sciences cannot be completely developed without higher 
mathematics, and (2) generic conclusions in many depart- 
ments of mental science presuppose a thorough knowledge 
of mathematics and natural science. That this really is 
the natural order of arriving at generic conclusions in the 
sciences appears especially from the fact that the second 
premise of mathematical induction contains nothing gratu- 
itous, whereas that of the natural and the mental sciences 
does. This gratuitous factor is most difficult to deal with 
in the mental sciences. According to this principle of 
knowledge mathematics should be made fundamental in 
higher education. Although logic is a mental science, it 
should be taken up as special preparation for systematic 
thinking in higher natural science. A course in physics, 
chemistry, biology, etc., should precede systematic inquiry 
into the higher mental sciences. 



40 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Causes, Laws, and Classes.— The reader will remember 
that among the earliest interests of his mind was the inter- 
est in causeSj, or powers. The questions which children ask 
along this line are legion. Laws, i.e., the invariable 
behavior of causes, is probably the most common subsequent 
interest. In other words, adults as well as children do not 
only desire to know why a thing exists in the form in which 
it does exist but also whether it will always be so. Thus, 
for example, they wish to know why the Autumn leaves 
fall, and then whether they will fall every Autumn. The 
desire to group individuals on the ground of essential 
resemblances and differences generally follows interest in 
causes and laws. It is true that the habit of grouping 
objects and events on the ground of sensible and practical 
resemblances and differences may be developed very early in 
life, but such convenient classification ignores cause and law 
as essential bases of division. That the natural order of 
inquiry into causes, laws, and scientific classes, is the one 
just presented, is plainly confirmed by the fact that " the 
ancients early made inquiries after the causes in natural 
philosophy and astronomy, while the attempts to ascertain 
the laws is of much more recent date," and by the fact 
that " the scientific classifications of ^N'atural History are 
much more recent than those of ISTatural Philosophy, 
Astronomy, etc." Thus we find that ordinarily (VIII) the 
mind seelcs causes first, then laws, and scientific classes 
last. In other words, invariability in the behavior of a 
cause can be known only by comparing the behavior of that 
cause under varying conditions, and scientific classes, as in 
botany and zoology, can be formed only when both the 
cause and laws to which the individuals are subject are 
known beforehand. There are cases, however, where the 
law will present itself to the mind before the cause, as in 
gravity, and the class before the laws and causes, as when 
mental action is broadly classified into thinking, feeling, 
and willing. To be in harmony with the principle enun- 



KNOWLEDGE 41 

ciated in this paragraph it is best, as a rule, to develop 
causes and laws together, classes being taken up somewhat 
later. This has become the rule, for example, in taking up 
history and physics before biology. 

Science and Philosophy. — As a search after ultimate 
generic conclusions, philosophy obviously presupposes not 
only cyclopaedic acquaintance with the conclusions of science 
in all its special problems, but also extensive acquaintance 
with psychology and the logic of the sciences. In other 
words, (IX) the sciences precede philosophy. According 
to this principle of knowledge, philosophy should not only 
come last in the college course, but a thorough college course 
should prepare the way. 

Correlation of the Sciences. — It was with joy that 
Froebel first perceived the relation of many apparently 
unrelated " objects of thought.'^ Herbart, " the Konigs- 
burg philosopher,' ' pursued the subject extensively. The 
great truth in question is this, that we can always prepare 
for one mental conquest by another in the fields of knowl- 
edge. This apperceptive connection of knowledge, as it has 
been called, is termed Correlation, and is so extensive that 
the mind cannot go very far into any science mthout arriv- 
ing in the fields of all the others. In short, (X) all the 
sciences are correlates. The " group " system and the 
" eclectic " courses offered in a number of colleges is a 
recognition of the principle involved. According to this 
principle the " daily programme " of all grades of schools 
should bring the pupil into daily contact with the whole 
field of knowledge. The principle reaches its limits in the 
university, where, after a general course, the student may 
wish to make some field of knowledge a specialty, but even 
this special course cannot be pursued to the best advantage 
unless the student has passed through a correlated general 
course. The principle of correlation also finds its limits 
in the technical and professional schools, where it must 
often be abandoned for practical and economic reasons. 



43 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 



Courses of Studies 

Courses of study for modern schools must be in harmony 
with the principles enunciated, as was indicated under each 
one separately. Accordingly, the course must be deter- 
mined (1) by the ultimate objects of education, (2) by the 
stages of ability to which pupils may attain in succession, 
(3) by the natural order in the development of knowledge, 
and (4) especially by the requirements of apperception in 
the progressive correlation of subjects assigned for study. 

Ultimate Objects. — Among the studies that make for 
happiness in modern life are nature study, literature, fine 
art, and philosophy. For goodness the course should include 
not only literature and l^ature, but history, ethics, and 
religion. In the interests of usefulness all sorts of courses 
in motor-education, mathematics, language, science, and 
the useful arts, are needed. The great professions and the 
schools which prepare for special vocations dictate courses 
for themselves. 

Stages of Ability. — (1) A number of the conditions 
that determine the assignment of lessons, such as the time 
which the pupil has at his command, etc., determine what 
may be included in a course of study. (2) The special 
culture-effects at which we should aim in promoting the 
natural evolution of the pupil's capabilities determine, as 
has been explained in the chapter on Culture, what sub- 
jects of study should be emphasized at the high tide of pos- 
sibilities in mental development. ( 3 ) The available stimuli 
to which the teacher can appeal in the successive stages of 
the pupil's development, as explained, help to determine 
what may be included in the course. 

Apperceptive Order. — The natural precedence of ideas, 
thoughts, sciences, etc., as fully explained in this chapter 
under the section on Principles of Knowledge, determines 
the order in which topics, lessons, and fields of work should 
be taken up. When this progressive correlation is perfect 



KNOWLEDGE 43 

the pupil is prepared for every new mental conquest by tlie 
most appropriate preparatory conquests. This has become 
known as the " apperception " requirement in courses of 
study. 

Construction of Courses. — Among the best modern 
efforts to construct courses of study in harmony with the 
principles enunciated are (1) The " Eeport of the Com- 
mittee of Fifteen " on courses for elementary schools, (2) 
The " Report of the Committee on Secondary Education 
in Pennsylvania/' (3) The " Eeport of the Committee of 
Ten" on College Entrance Eequirements, and (4) The 
" Report of the Committee of Seven " on Higher 
Education. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Educational Review, Nov., 1895; Feb., 1893; April, 1897. 



CHAPTER IV 
PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 

The term instruction, from the Latin in, into, and struo, 
I build, denotes the teaching process so far as it has to do 
with promoting the acquisition of ideas, thoughts, opinion, 
knowledge. We shall probably never be able to dispense 
wholly with direct information in dealing with learners, 
and yet ideal instruction must be causative rather than 
communicative, i.e., the process of instruction must consist 
of assignments, stimuli, and supervision rather than of 
telling, stating, imparting, etc. To cause the learner to 
think is the distinctive purpose of modern instruction 
(see Self-Activity and Supervision, Chapter I). The 
desire to know more, the habit of study, right methods of 
study, etc., are vastly more important to the school boy 
than the information which a recitation may enable him to 
acquire. In other words, the culture which the pupil gets 
from the learning process is among the highest tests of fine 
instruction. In order that the teacher may attain to these 
ideals he must conform with certain laws, to which, as 
psychology shows, the mind is subject in the knowledge- 
getting process. The general truths here in question are 
termed Principles of Instruction. 

Adaptation of Lessons. — The work to be performed in 
the mastery of lessons may consist of ascertaining and rep- 
resenting facts, or the discovery and application of rela- 
tions by means of comparisons. If the assigned acquisition 
of facts is beyond the present possibilities of the learner, if 
the comparisons to be made are too complex, if the required 
mental concentration is too prolonged and severe, the learner 
may lose faith both in himself and in his teacher. If, on 
the contrary, the tasks assigned do not tax the learner up 
44 



PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 45 

to the limits of his present possibilities, he will soon grow 
lax in effort and lose inspiration. Therefore, in assigning 
lessons and making promotions the modern teacher must 
consider first of all the difficulty of the task to be performed 
with books as tools or by means of things, and then the 
present possibilities of the learner in view of his age, health, 
talents, habits, previous advantages, etc., together with the 
time at the pupil's disposal in the preparation of his tasks, 
the local environment of the study periods, and the physio- 
logical and economic possibilities of the recitation periods. 
In short, (I) the learner's present possibilities ougJit to he 
considered in assigning lessons. To be in full accord with 
this principle the teacher must study the lesson which he 
expects to assign, think it into the necessary mental steps 
which the learner must take to master it, and, after care- 
fully considering the present possibilities of the pupil or 
the class, adjust the assignment to the possibilities. In 
view of these requirements it is not surprising that the 
untrained teacher often fails to reach desirable results. 

Succession of Lessons. — The " royal road " in teaching 
perceptions, conceptions, inductions, and deductions, is 
through the related known to the new, and from the simple 
to the complex. This, as already explained, is apperception, 
and requires that lessons to be studied should, if possible, 
be approached through others that pave the way. In short, 
(II) the apperceptive relation of subjects ought to be con- 
sidered in assigning lessons. According to this principle 
the modern teacher must try to ascertain just what the pupil 
knows, and then lead up to that knowledge for which the 
knowledge already acquired is the necessary preparation, 
as when we teach operations with fractions after operations 
with whole numbers, and decimal fractions after common 
fractions. In geometry, for example, the progress from 
theorem to theorem must be a somewhat perfect junction 
of syllogisms, each one paving the way for the next one 
and necessitating it. In any study some steps will not be 



46 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

possible for the learner until he has taken all the steps that 
lead up to the one in question. After the same fashion, 
geography prepares the way for history, and arithmetic 
for algebra; but geography does not prepare the way for 
algebra, nor arithmetic for history. In short the various 
branches of study, as well as the various steps of a branch, 
should precede and follow each other in the order in which 
by relation to each other they prepare for each other. 

Interesting Lessons. — It is almost impossible, espe- 
cially for younger boys and girls, to study lessons that are 
not interesting in themselves or that have no obvious con- 
nection with things that are interesting in themselves. The 
will, as psychology shows, is most active along the lines of 
intense interest. Interesting lines of thought are almost 
irresistible, as any one can testify. That lesson which is 
most interesting is most likely to be studied. And such a 
lesson becomes not only a possession of the memory, but also 
an easy conquest of the understanding, and a permanent 
consequence to character. Therefore, even if, contrary to 
the arguments of the Herbartians, it is really possible and 
highly necessary to acquire the power to apply the mind to 
disagreeable tasks, in order to be able to succeed in life, 
(III) tJie possibility of interesting the learner ougTit to he 
considered in assigning lessons. This possibility is really 
much greater than one might suppose. Lessons that have to 
do with the sensible in nature, with the beautiful in any 
sphere, with causal and novel relations, with human joys 
and sorrows, with concern for communities and nations, 
and the like, are interesting in themselves to the normal 
mind. It is true, as genetic psychology shows, that these 
native interests, permanent and universal as they seem to 
be, are somewhat modified by ancestry, environment, indi- 
viduality, sex, age, and ideals; but, when the lessons are 
well adjusted to the present powers of the learner, and the 
succession of the lessons is thoroughly apperceptive, these 
interests can always be relied upon as effective stimuli. 



PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 47 

Then, too, lessons which are not interesting in themselves 
become interesting, as explained in Chapter I, through 
appeals to the instincts of motor expression, imitation, com- 
petition, success, esteem, duty, etc. The ability to turn these 
" borrowed interests " to good use is a distinguishing char- 
acteristic of the modern teacher. 

Needed Lessons. — The possibility of interesting the 
learner is, however, not the only reason, nor even the best 
reason, for assigning any lesson. There should always be 
some obvious connection between the lesson to be studied and 
the ultimate objects of education. Genetic psychology shows 
that, as a rule, those lessons which make for perfection in 
culture, for success higher up in the grades, and for success 
and moral perfection in life, also appeal to the learner at 
the times when they must usually be taken up in school. 
For this reason the Herbatians insist on interest as the 
safest and most significant reason for the assignment of 
any lesson. This ^^ soft pedagogy," as it is sometimes called, 
is not as sane as hard experience could wish it to be. Expe- 
rience shows that caprice and love of ease often stand 
between the pupil and his highest good, as in the mastery 
of multiplication tables, necessary mathematical formulas, 
abstract texts, etc. In such cases the teacher should appeal 
to the pupil's instinctive desire to conquer difficulties. 
Failing in this appeal, he cannot be charged with the crime 
of pedagogical despotism if he resorts to argumentative 
insistence and rational compulsion. In short, (IV) all ihe 
pupil's needs ongM to he considered in assigning lessons. 
Among the serious questions which the modern teacher must 
decide in accordance with these requirements are the fol- 
lowing: (1) With which of the many possible objects of 
sense should the senses of the pupil be occupied ? (2) With 
which of the many possible conquests should the pupil's 
memory be burdened? (3) TJpon which of the many pos- 
sible materials should the imagination operate ? (4) From 
what possible mass of experiences should the mind cull its 



48 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

concepts? (5) Within whicli of the many practical, moral, 
and religious domains should the understanding try to 
cognize relations ? 

Right Method of Instruction. — In its attempts to 
understand the world and itself, the mind finds only wholes, 
parts, individuals, and genera. Thus, however, a number 
of operations become possible. We may pass from the 
whole to its parts, as with words and sentences ; from parts 
to the whole, as in sentence construction and addition ; from 
the concrete to the abstract, as in teaching qualities of wholes 
or parts; from the abstract to the concrete, as in reading 
and algebra ; from the simple to the complex, as in teaching 
geographical wholes and grammatical classifications; from 
the individual to the genus, as in teaching definitions and 
laws; from the genus to the individuals, as in using rules 
or obeying laws ; from practice to theory, as in explaining 
processes and justifying courses of action ; and from theory 
to practice, as in the application of science and philosophy 
to the tasks of life. All these possible mental processes 
resolve themselves into analysis, the reduction of a whole 
to its parts ; synthesis, the construction of parts into wholes ; 
induction, the discovery of relation or genus by comparing 
individuals; and deduction, the treatment of individuals 
by inclusion in a genus. Which of these steps the learner 
must be required to take, and how many of them, depends 
upon the knowledge with which he starts out. In other 
words, (V) tlie right method of instruction is analysis^ 
synthesis^ induction, or deduction, as determined hy the 
mental situation. It is difilcult to understand how any one 
fit to be a teacher could fail in these requirements, and yet 
that is just what has happened frequently from the times 
of Socrates until now in teaching abstractions, conceptions, 
definitions, laws, problems, etc. The one thing needful in 
deciding on the step which the pupil is to take is to ascer- 
tain the mental situation and to act accordingly. 

Eight Faculties. — (1) In the final analysis all studies 



PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 49 

resolve themselves into mental acts, as was explained in 
the psychology of science. Some faculties are of much more 
importance to success in any study than others, because of 
the " stuff," or subject matter, which is attacked. In spell- 
ing, for example, associative memory is more important than 
inductive reasoning, while in geometry deductive reason- 
ing is more important than associative memory. The differ- 
ences, as analytic psychology shows, are really startling. 
(2) In any study success depends most upon the order in 
which, according to the stuff, the faculties are called into 
service. The natural approach of the pupil to the stuff of 
geography, for example, is from the near to the far through 
perception followed by imagination. In the study of events 
through books the imagination must be largely substituted 
for perception, because the stuff is in the past or far 
away. In short, (VI) the method of instruction is right 
when the learner is led to use the right mental faculties. 
To be in full accord with this requirement the teacher must 
not only analyze the lesson or branch in question into the 
mental steps of which it consists, but he must call the neces- 
sary faculties into service in right order, and lay the burden 
where it belongs by nature. In view of these truths, the old- 
time classification of studies into " information studies " 
and " thought studies " was a pedagogical crime. 

Eight Use of Faculties. — " In learning anything there 
are two points to be considered, 1st, the advantage we shall 
find from knowing the subject or having that skill, and 
2nd, the effect which the study of that subject or prac- 
tising for that skill will have on the mind or body." The 
latter consideration, as was explained in Chapter I, is of 
primary importance in education. But it does not follow 
that a course of instruction, even if it employs the faculties 
which ought to be employed, improves those faculties suffi- 
ciently. And this failure is due to improper employment 
of the faculties in question. When, for example, the 
senses are not required to be used with interest and atten- 
4 



so MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

tion, or the memory work is only mechanical, or judgment 
goes unchallenged, or reasoning is deductive when it should 
be inductive, the results will, of course, be disappointing. 
It is only when faculties are properly employed and in 
proper correlation with other faculties, that they can be 
sufficiently improved. Accordingly, (VII) the method of 
instruction is right when the learner is led to use right 
faculties rightly, A very thorough course in educational 
psychology is the necessary preparation for the teacher who 
expects to succeed in this requirement. 

Emancipative Insteuction. — The one overshadowing 
purpose of school instruction is to make post-graduate self- 
instruction possible and probable. This, as has been ex- 
plained in Chapter I, is termed the pupiFs emancipation 
from the teacher, and must be looked upon as the decisive 
test of right method. In other words, (VIII) the method 
of instruction is right when it leads the pupil to self-instruc- 
tion. To this end it is not enough to accustom the pupil to 
analytic and synthetic observation, to well-supported induc- 
tions, and to logic-guarded deductions, as required by the 
psychology of science. "Not is it enough to accustom the 
pupil to make those approaches and attacks which the 
stuff of lessons and studies requires, as has been explained 
in the preceding paragraphs on the use of mental faculties. 
The learner must also be trained to swallow book-stuff as 
cautiously as pre digested foods, and his own inductions 
in the laboratory must be the most guarded conclusions 
based upon abundant and well-examined data. He must, 
moreover, be accustomed to emotional intensity without 
emotional storm, and to voluntary isolation from disturb- 
ing environment. Apart from these conditions, concentra- 
tion, the most essential attribute of successful study, is 
quite impossible. To pupils thus prepared to help them- 
selves study will become an absolute delight — a joy forever. 
These desirable results, however, cannot be attained in a day 
even by the best teachers with the best pupils. The best 



PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 51 

we can do is to set up the ideal and pursue it with ardor. 
Even the poorest results will be marvellous. 

Special Methods of Instruction. — Institutions under- 
taking to prepare students for special vocations, such as 
the ministry, medicine, law, teaching, banking, commerce, 
engineering, etc., must of course be governed both in course 
and method by the special ends in view. While it is not in 
harmony with the idea of this treatise to enter extensively 
into the difficulties of such situations, passing reference is 
required. In some of these technical, or special schools, — 
take medical colleges or the laboratory of the university 
specialist for example, — all the steps of science should, by 
reason of the tremendous responsibilities that must rest 
upon the graduates of such institutions, be required in 
faultless perfection. In other schools, take theological 
seminaries or law schools for example, where books and 
lectures must be largely used, the student should be espe- 
cially exercised in mental digestion supported by high 
ideals. In many special schools, take industrial art schools, 
academies of fine art, etc., for example, where the control- 
ling idea is either mechanical or sesthetic prefection, stress 
must be laid on patient accuracy, skill of execution, etc. 
In short, (IX) {he method of instruction in special schools 
is right when it is in harmony with special purposes, A 
developed pedagogic sense and rich personality are the 
indispensable prerequisites of teaching power in all such 
institutions. 

Complete Method of Instruction. — The psychology 
of science, language, art, philosophy, etc., shows that ana- 
lytic and synthetic observation, be it personal or substitu- 
tional, is the way to study individuals, and thus to ascertain 
facts; that induction or comparison of individuals is the 
road to all generic conclusions or principles, such as defini- 
tions, laws, etc. ; and that the only other thing which the 
mind can do is to apply such principles to the solution of 
special cases under the rule, this final step being deduction. 



52 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

That is to say, tliat all study-tasks resolve themselves into 
these steps, and the series exhausts all the possibilities of 
the mind. It is only fair to insist that whenever it is pos- 
sible without violating economic ideals observation should 
at once be followed by induction, and induction by deduc- 
tion, as in teaching spelling, definitions, drainage, wars, 
and the like. In short, (X) the method of instruction is 
complete luhen observation is followed ty induction and 
deduction. It is really pathetic to see how frequently this 
principle is violated not only by the untrained but by the 
trained teacher. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. General Method. ISIcMurray. 

2. Recitation. Hamilton. 



PART II 
METHODS OF CULTURE 



What the writer hopes to express has been summed up by the 

poet — 

" He lives most who thinks most, 
Feels the noblest. 
Acts the best." 

While the perfect life is known to psychology by laborious analysis, 
it is known beforehand to the poet by a sort of inspiration. 



CHAPTER I 
METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 

The nature of culture, as explained under Principles 
of Culture in Chapter II, Part I, determines right methods. 
The following rules, as the student should try to under- 
stand for himself, are derived from the principles in 
question. 

Perception. — When accurate perception in the various 
important domains of life has become a habit, much has 
been accomplished. These attainments should therefore 
be the ends in view in exercises for the senses. 

1. Exercise the senses habitually on forms, colors, paHs, 
qualities, etc. The house in which we live, the street on 
which we walk, the various occupations of life, offer many 
opportunities for such exercise of the senses. The school 
must lead boys and girls definitely into many proper fields 
of observation and experiment. Special lessons on selected 
objects, plants, animals, etc., must be given. 

2. Combine apperception, interest, and voluntary effort 
with the exercise of the senses. It is marvellously helpful 
to pass from the related old to something new in the exer- 
cise of the senses, as in lessons on form, colors, plants, 
animals, etc. Interest sharpens the senses, as in new sur- 
roundings like museums, parks, etc. Voluntary effort saves 
the mind from caprice in the exercise of the senses, as in 
looking for a friend in a crowd or for the petals of a rose. 

3. Find effective stimuli to compel perfect perception. 
Most of the instinctive impulses, such as love of play, imi- 
tation, curiosity, competition, and the like can be utilized 
to compel perfect perception. The desire to return with 
a charming account of what can be seen, heard, tasted, 
smelled, felt, etc., in the woods, or the request to write 

65 



56 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

a good description of a picture to be studied, works like a 
charm as a stimulus to perfect perception. Accurate per- 
ception can often be compelled by requiring pupils to make 
a picture of things to be observed, as in case of object 
lessons. 

4. Seize upon the ripening time of the senses for special 
exercises. Mental activity begins in the senses. The " little 
ones " are all ear and eye and hand. This fervent in- 
quisitiveness of childhood, alas, too often ceases when child- 
hood ceases, not only because the hungry soul is not fed, 
but also because appropriate food is criminally withheld. 
Accurate perception should become a habit as early as 
possible in life, for then it will be easy enough for the 
average person to keep it up until late in life. 

5. Grant the pupil's individuality enough initiative in 
the u^e of his senses. Supervisory power must of course 
be vested in the teacher, unless the contentions of Chapter 
I, Part I, are ill-founded, but, as explained in Chapter II, 
those claims of individuality which are not out of harmony 
with the ultimate objects of education should be respected. 
Such claims, as educators well know, come to the surface 
as early as infancy in decided attitudes of preference for 
this or that in the sense world. In this, as in other things, 
" the child is father to the man." In the recognition of 
the child's individuality the teacher must, however, care- 
fully distinguish between individuality itself and such 
pathological conditions of the senses as call for the service 
of skilful oculists, surgeons, physicians, etc. 

Memory, — The power to acquire rapidly, to retain faith- 
fully, and to recall quickly, whatever is really worth acquir- 
ing, retaining, and recalling in the many domains of life, 
is among the most valuable attainments of perfect culture. 
Together with perception, memory is the furnishing and 
conserving agent of the mind. It should therefore be care- 
fully cultivated. The following rules are submitted as 
helpful. 



METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 57 

1. Exercise the memory habitually on valuable data in 
science^ language, art, etc. As already explained in Chap- 
ter II, Part I, the power to remember names does not 
always go with the power to remember faces, etc. Since 
it is only when there is likeness of data, as in laws of 
languages, that likeness of effect in the use of the memory 
follows, data typical of all valuable acquirements in all 
possible domains of life should be used for memory train- 
ing. Among the data upon which memory should accord- 
ingly be exercised are names and faces, valuable facts and 
formulas, inspiring extracts of prose and poetry, and the 
necessary order of succession in the tasks of life. 

2. Combine interest, attention, and thought with the tasks 
of memory as reinforcements, (1) As a mental excitement 
interest makes the memory vigorous in acquisition, as we 
know from experience in committing pretty extracts or 
valuable dates. Since interest is also an excitement of 
the sensorium, which is the present organ of memory, it 
makes both retention and recollection more certain, as we 
know from experience and psychology. (2) Voluntary 
attention quickens acquisition. By reason of the impres- 
sion of the sensorium attentive acquisition guarantees more 
perfect retention and quicker recollection, as many of us 
know from experience with orations and their delivery. 
(3) It is much easier to commit something in which there 
is a thought, as the student can prove by first committing 
a long sentence forward and then another of the same kind 
backward. In the first case the thought suggests word 
associations, heightens interest, and invites attention, thus 
serving the memory in a number of ways. Such natural 
associations as those of contiguity of time and place, cause 
and effect, likeness and contrast, are easily explained as 
thought-effects on memory. Any system of mnemonics not 
based on thought relations is likely to be a hindrance rather 
than a help to memory. 

3. Exercise the memory to its utmost at the ripening 



58 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

time. In the great majority of cases tested, approximately 
the first fifteen years of life constitute what has been 
termed the acquisitive epoch. During this epoch the 
memory, through the alertness of the senses, due in large 
part to the novelty of everything, acquires all sorts of 
data with the greatest ease, with the likelihood of perma- 
nent retention and ready recollection. ^N'eglected or abused 
at this stage, arrest of development, or even decline of 
power, is almost certain to follow. The lost opportunity 
can seldom be recovered. Those who, like Agricola, can 
take up Greek at the age of forty-one and learn to use 
it with elegance and eloquence are rarely to be found. 
The method of instruction, as well as the course of in- 
struction in our schools, should be harmonized with this 
significant law of memory. 

4. Grant the pupiVs individuality enough initiative in 
the use of his memory. As in the case of the senses, the 
teacher must be careful not to confound caprice and path- 
ological conditions with the pupil's real individuality of 
memory. That there are real differences of capacity and 
mental trend in memory is too well known to require 
comment. Before these differences the modern teacher 
will bow with due respect, reserving only the power to 
harmonize each individuality with the highest possibilities. 

Imagination. — A clean, rational, and powerful imagina- 
tion is so important to the mind and life, as analytic psy- 
chology shows, and yet so easily debauched, perverted, and 
arrested in its development, as pathological psychology 
shows, that we should devote our best energies to a proper 
cultivation of this faculty. The following rules should be 
observed : 

1. Use imagination in as many piroper domains as pos- 
sible. Among the materials upon which imagination should 
be exercised in the interests of mind and life may be 
mentioned (1) persons, places, things, or facts beyond the 
present scope of the senses, as in geography or history. 



METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 59 

(2) the portraits of good literature, (3) the multitude of 
proved and unproved hypotheses of the various sciences, 
(4) the creations of the various fine arts, (5) the con- 
ceptions of invention, (6) the infinite in time and space, 
(7) dramatic presentation, (8) etc. 

2. Compel perception, memory, and thought to contHhute 
the necessary data. In as much as imagination consists of 
thinking combinations that resemble sensible realities, the 
cultivation of the senses in the various domains of science, 
language, art, invention, life, etc., will of course be neces- 
sary in the cultivation of imagination within these domains. 
In so far as memory amounts to reproductive imagination 
its cultivation, like that of the senses, contributes the neces- 
sary " stuff " for productive combinations, or transcendence. 
And the very ^' web and woof '^ of productive imagination 
often consists of apperceptive thoughts, as in scientific 
hypotheses, literary portraits, artistic creations, pratical 
inventions, etc. Accordingly the cultivation of appercep- 
tive thought is of the highest importance in the cultivation 
of imagination. 

3. Support and control the imagination hy reason. 
Reason, as we have learned, is the power to think true 
relations, i.e., it is sanity of thought. The preservation of 
such sanity through obedience to physiological laws is the 
only safeguard against capricious and riotous imaginations. 
The connection in question is evidently of the utmost im- 
portance to mind and life. 

4. Promote the development of imagination hy the use of 
proper stimuli. Among the most powerful stimuli of 
imagination are curiosity ; the beauty of nature, literature, 
and art; and the desire to achieve something useful or 
surprising. While curiosity is a most effective stimulus 
to imagination in the various fields of science, it must be 
wisely curbed by dictates of morality in the various fields 
of literature and art. Although the beauty of nature, liter- 
ature, and art, as a stimulus in the cultivation of imagina- 



60 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

tion, is somewhat subject to the same limits, the domain of 
effectiveness is much more extended. The desire to achieve 
success in literature, art, invention, etc., unless it be com- 
mercialized or corrupt in any way, is a most productive 
stimulus, as biography has proved abundantly. 

5. Exercise the imagination 7ightly to the utmost capacity 
in the ripening time. The ripening time for imagina- 
tion corresponds rather closely — surprisingly so — with the 
ripening period of memory, as the life in which the play 
instinct expresses itself quite clearly shows. In their early 
years, children should by no means be deprived of play- 
things and play. In the " teens " boys and girls should 
still play, but the doors to manual construction, literary 
and dramatic arts, etc., should be opened to them all as 
widely and wisely as possible. In that event arrested 
development and decline is less likely to limit the possi- 
bilities of mind and life. 

6. Grant the pupil's individuality enough initiative in the 
use of imagination. The teacher should never confound 
the real individuality of imagination with the defects due 
to physiological derangement, or to the influence of evil 
associates and bad books. These defects should of course 
be corrected by medical treatment, counter-suggestion, or 
moral restraint, according to the exigency of the case. 
But, to come right to the heart of the matter, while com- 
prehensiveness of imagination should be cultivated, as 
already explained, any pronounced preference, be it in 
favor of science, literature, art, or invention, etc., should be 
encouraged as much as possible. 

Thought. — The term thought, as used in this treatise, 
denotes judgment and reasoning in all their forms. It 
is more especially in the sphere of thought that man is 
superior to the brute, and like unto God. Among the most 
important things to life and mind, as history shows, are 
(1) clearness and sanity of judgment on all sorts of sub- 
jects, (2) ability to push an argument unerringly to con- 



METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 61 

elusion, whether in a special field or on broader lines, and 
(3) rapidity of movement where decision demands it. 
While these things are impossible for the multitude, much 
can be done for those who will dare to try. 

1. Exercise the judgment much on type-data of science, 
language, art, philosophy, etc. If high attainments in one 
domain of thought were a guarantee of anything like equal 
ability in others the cultivation of thinking power, in the 
technical sense, would be comparatively simple, for then 
we should choose one line of thought, as mathematics, or 
science, or art, and save time and labor and expense; but 
this, as explained under Principles of Culture, does not 
follow. In spite of the overlapping correlations explained 
in Chapter III, Part I, thought-power, like all other men- 
tal power, is highly specialized. Hence the only thing that 
remains, in order to be equal to the tasks of correlation 
both in life and mind, is to cultivate thought-power along 
as many lines as possible. This, of course, makes en- 
richment of the course of studies in the schools below the 
imiversity a double necessity. 

2. Support thought hy helpful faculties like perception, 
memory, imagination, will. Through perception the mind 
acquires " stuff " for thought, through memory it conserves 
this stuff. The imagination brings abstract thought within 
the grasp of the senses, as in the arguments of geometry, 
and enables thought to transcend realities, as in fiction, 
where it gives to " airy nothing a local habitation and a 
name." The will combined with thought tends to make 
it clear and accurate and rapid. 

3. Always correlate induction with deduction in reason- 
ing. Induction prepares for deduction, as in learning to 
spell by rule. However informal it may be, as in the 
demonstrations of geometry, where the " drawing " stands 
for it, induction gives authority to deduction. When 
deduction is omitted, as often happens, and sometimes for 
good reasons, the cultural correlation is incomplete. 



62 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

4. Use the concrete, the abstract, and the difficult in 
order as stimuli in cultivating thought. Children like 
object studies and movements long before they care much 
for books. And yet, excepting cases of arrested develop- 
ment, the time comes in the early ^' teens '^ when boys and 
girls begin to enjoy books. In the later '' teens " and after- 
wards, unless " soft pedagogy " has spoiled them, the diffi- 
cult lesson, appealing as it does to the desire to achieve, is 
a powerful incentive to study. 

5. Exercise thought to its utmost capacity for good in 
the ripening time. The reasons for this rule, as the 
student will know, are the same as before, and important as 
they are, need not be repeated here. Thought becomes a 
mental monopoly in the later " teens,'' as genetic psychology 
shows, and may continue at high tide for many years, 
depending of course on physiological supports; but it 
begins to ripen much earlier than the wild guesses of 
Rousseau would lead us to believe. The common school 
branches are the teacher's convenient means in the culti- 
vation of thought not only in the lower but also in the 
higher grades. Geography, history, arithmetic, and gram- 
mar, are best suited to the early " teens." Physical geog- 
raphy, geometry, and algebra, together with botany, natural 
philosophy, etc., are suitable for high school pupils. 
General history, biology, psychology, the classics, etc., are 
useful means in ISTormal schools and colleges. 

6. Grant the pupiVs individuality enough initiative in 
reasoning. Apart from physiological limitations, poor 
opportunities, caprice, etc., there are, as explained in Chap- 
ter I, Part I, startling differences of possibility in thought- 
attainments. As with other mental faculties, comprehen- 
siveness of thought is important to life and mind, but 
any pronounced preference should be encouraged as much 
as possible. 

Sensibility. — In as much as the emotions are the springs 
of action in life, the importance of their proper cultivation 



METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 63 

can hardly be overestimated. A joyous, loving, hopeful 
attitude should be the end in view. And these attainments 
are not so much beyond our reach as we sometimes make 
ourselves believe. The rules to be obeyed are as follows : 

1. Awahe worthy emotions by thinking the useful, the 
true, the beautiful, the good. The mind is so constituted, 
as psychology shows, that the character of our thoughts 
determines the character of our emotions. Improper 
thoughts generate improper feelings, and proper thoughts, 
to say the least, tend toward proper feelings. Thus it fol- 
lows that the " heart " must be cultivated through the 
" head." To the heart-culture of the perfect life belong 
all true home affections, all the nobler forms of social 
chivalry, all the forms of noble civic loyalty, all the forms 
of love to God. To be right at heart to this extent makes 
the world in which we live, notwithstanding all its necessary 
disciplines, a paradise. 

2. Find the required means for the cultivation of emo- 
tions in nature, 'pictures, hymns, persons, boohs, etc. 
Happily there is no lack of means for the cultivation of 
the mental heart. ISTature herself touches this " harp of 
a thousand strings." It is difficult to understand how any 
normal mind can come away from the contemplation of 
[N'ature without being moved to joy, love, and hope. The 
painter, the poet, the singer, the literary masters, the 
inspired writers, — all of these and others have contributed 
a great deal to the culture of the heart. Home ties, social 
bonds, religion, and the teacher's personality should count 
for very much in heart culture. The one warning that 
must be spoken is the need of wise selection from this 
Vealth of means. 

3. Supply favorable conditions for the natural transition 
from sensuous to ideal emotions. The emotions of the 
child, as genetic psychology shows, are only slightly differ- 
entiated from sensation. Ripening thought gradually 
differentiates emotion from sensation more or less com- 



64 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

pletely. Unfavorable conditions, such, as bad parentage and 
vicious associations, retard, -while the opposite conditions 
promote the transition from the sensuous to the ideal. 
Amidst the wealth of means to which attention has been 
called, the teacher's duty should be very plain. Much can 
be accomplished by weaving all worthy emotions into life, 
as Pestalozzi was wont to do at Stanz, thus producing 
right emotional habit. 

4. Grant the pupil's emotional individuality enough 
initiative, Eiotous emotion, coupled as it often is with 
riotous imagination, both of them together arising from 
disease, etc., must of course not be confounded with emo- 
tional individuality. Real emotional individuality is un- 
doubtedly the sequential correlate of intellectual individu- 
ality, and, kept subordinate to that comprehensiveness 
which, as explained, is best for mind and life, it deserves 
recognition correlate with that accorded to intellectual 
individuality. Unworthy emotions can often be conquered 
by counter-suggestion, moral restraints, or medical treat- 
ment. 

Will. — Apart from intelligent vigor of will, the mind 
cannot develop adequately nor do its work in the world. 
Such vigor is hardly among the possibilities of the great 
multitude, but mucb can be accomplished by the man or 
woman of average capability. Marvellous things are pos- 
sible for a few. The following rules serve the ends in view : 

1. Wahe up worthy emotions in worthy domains, thus 
soliciting the will to worthy endeavors. As explained un- 
der cultivation of the Sensibility, worthy emotions must 
be waked up by thinking worthy thoughts. Emotions in 
turn, for such is the law of sequence, solicit the will, and 
the character of the emotions waked up shapes the character 
of the voluntary sequence. Experimental psychology and 
biography both show what Socrates in his theory of morals 
failed to see, that the sequence of intellectual, emotional, 
and voluntary activity is not quantitatively inevitable, and 



METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 65 

that freedom of will remains in spite of intellectual and 
emotional trend. But — and this is the point at issue now — 

CLOSER SEQUENCE CAN REALLY BE CULTIVATED BY EXERCISE, 
ESPECIALLY BY WEAVING ALL WORTHY EMOTIONS AT FIRST 
OPPORTUNITY INTO LIFE, AND THIS POSSIBILITY IS THE 
GREAT HOPE OF EDUCATION. 

2. Make desirable achievements depend for success upon 
difficult endeavor. Among the desirable attainments in 
life are (1) self-perfection, consisting of health, strength, 
skill, etc., (2) the power for good that belongs to learning, 
culture, wealth, position, etc., and (3) right personal rela- 
tions with God through religious morality. The price in 
voluntary effort to be paid for such desirable attainments 
is too great for most of us, but much can be accomplished 
by those who dare to try, as biography abundantly attests. 
Hard study, coupled with great persistence, leads to great 
learning. The determination to overcome obstacles and 
disappointments often brings skill, wealth, and station. 
The young should be led to see the grandeur of Christian 
character, and taught to be earnest co-workers with God in 
building themselves. 

3. Supply favorable conditions for the 7iatural transition 
frorn impulsive to deliberative will. In the child volition, 
as genetic psychology shows, is only slightly differentiated 
from emotion. For example, take the conduct of an angry 
or a thirsty child. Racial childhood is subject to the same 
law. Ripening thought gradually differentiates volition 
from emotion more or less completely. Unfavorable con- 
ditions, such as bad parentage, vicious associations, retard, 
while the opposite conditions promote the natural transition 
from impulsive to deliberate will. The teacher must of 
course use the same wealth of means advised in waking 
up worthy emotions. Such instincts as play, motor-expres- 
sion, imitation, competition, etc., wisely used at right times 
of life, are also most effective stimuli in the promotion of 
the transition in question. 

5 



66 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

4. Grant the pupil's voluntary individuality enough 
initiative. Defective volition, arising from nervousness, 
loss of hope, etc., must of course not be confounded with 
real individuality of will. The defect must naturally be 
corrected by removing the causes. Real individuality, 
often found in special pursuits, is the sequential correlate 
of emotional individuality, and, kept subordinate to that 
well rounded culture which is best for mind and life, it 
deserves recognition correlate with that accorded to in- 
tellectual and emotional individuality. Defective individu- 
ality of will can often be corrected by inspiring pupils 
with a definite ambition, by the contagion of superior per- 
sonality of the teacher and associates, by the stern realities 
of life, etc. 

Attention. — In the getting of an education, attention 
as the selection of one object of thought to the exclusion 
of others is admittedly of supreme importance. Great 
achievements in life also depend very largely on attention. 
It is the voluntary phase of attention with which we have 
to do at this point. The following rules will guide the 
teacher in securing the pupiFs attention and promoting the 
power to pay attention. 

1. Appeal to the pupiVs intellectuality through intel- 
lectuality and professional sJcill. (1) To command free 
attention on the part of pupils the teacher must first of all 
be sufficiently intellectual. A penetrating knowledge of 
the subject, together with accurate measurement of the 
pupil in assignments and unmistakable ability to get results, 
make it easy for the teacher to command attention. Un- 
mistakable ability to get results, however, belongs only to 
him who is direct in approaching the points to be made, 
connected and convincing in the argument, absolutely lucid 
in style, and luminously graphic and illustrative. (2) If 
to such intellectuality of personality, professional skill is 
added, i.e., skill in causing perfect observation, perfect 
induction, and perfect deduction, the teacher's conquest is 



METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 67 

well nigh complete. The consciousness of rapid and happy 
progress under such a teacher makes attention a rapturous 
delight. Therefore, he who hopes to win the attention of 
pupils successfully should gladly submit to the rigorous 
regime of modern professional training. 

2. Command attention through winsome 'personality. 
Authority alone will fail to command attention, but a 
personality to which, in addition to the larger intellectuality 
just explained, belong also a larger heart and pronounced 
manliness, will command attention under almost any cir- 
cumstances. (1) The teacher of the larger heart is 
absolutely approachable. The sunshine about him, together 
with the sense of humor and enthusiasm born of high 
ideals, are the inviting doorways to his heart. Attention 
becomes an irresistible tribute of love when the pupils come 
to recognize in the teacher the belief that he will deal 
squarely with every pupil, that he will be faithful to the cause 
of every pupil, and that he will be unfailingly patient with 
the dull and perverse. (2) The one thing needed most 
in dealing with the learner as a free being is pronounced 
manliness. The manly teacher is certain of himself in 
instruction, clear as to what he wants to teach, confident 
that he can prove what he wants to prove. He is always 
self-controlled, master of himself in crises and collisions, 
immovable where principles are really at stake. He is 
always morally in earnest, safe in trend, unassailably hon- 
orable, touched of God in Christ. Attention commanded 
by such manliness and largeness of heart is not mechanical 
and strained, but vital and free. The pupil instinctively 
recognizes such personality in the bright face, the warm 
voice, and the devoted vigor of his teacher, and gladly — 
almost unconsciously — surrenders his soul to the influence. 

3. Malce desired achievements depend upon vigorous and 
persistent attention. All incentives through which the 
teacher must appeal to the pupil in the cultivation of a 
perfect will can be effectively employed in commanding 



68 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

vigorous and persistent attention, and the teacher should 
spare no pains to be true to these possibilities. The con- 
nection between hard lessons in school and desirable 
achievements in life is not so difficult to explain as is 
commonly believed. 

4. Make perfect attention possible through proper physi- 
ological and moral conditions. Among the important 
physiological supports of attention are proper diet, proper 
exercise, proper rest and sleep, plenty of fresh air, comfort 
of body, etc. The teacher should also determine physiolog- 
ically when pupils should study, what they really can 
study or recite to advantage at this or that time of the 
day, under this or that condition of body and mind, how 
long study periods and recitation periods should be for 
younger and older pupils, how to avoid abnormal fatigue, 
etc. A crowded program and impossible tasks are especially 
pernicious. The teacher should also do his best to prevent 
the social and moral complications which so often blight 
the possibilities of boys and girls. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Pedagogical Seminary, December, 1906, December, 1907. 

2. Educational Review, April, 1898. 

3. Self-Culture. Blackie. 

4. School Hygiene. Kotelman. 



CHAPTER II 
PHYSICAL CULTURE 

The promotion of physical health, strength, skill, and 
beauty, through special exercise of the voluntary muscles, 
is technically termed Physical Culture. 

The Physiology of Physical Culture 

The nature of the body and its relation to the mind, 
together with the needs of life, will of course determine 
the special exercises by means of which physical health, 
streng1;h, skill, and beauty can really be promoted. 

The Relation of the Voluntary Muscles. — The vital 
organs, such as the lungs, the heart, the stomach, the liver, 
the kidneys, and even the skin, are very intimately de- 
pendent on the exercise of the voluntary muscles. This 
dependence, as physiology shows, is a correlation accom- 
plished by the nervous system ramifying as it does with 
stactling minuteness to all parts of the body, including 
marrow, bone, hair, and nails. ^Tiatever, therefore, hap- 
pens to the voluntary muscles is faithfully transmitted to 
all parts of the body as sympathetic effect. Both neglect 
and improper exercise are evidently serious. 

The Possibilities of Voluntary Muscles. — (1) We can 
contract many muscles at will. Some muscles are thus 
shortened while they thicken, as for example the biceps; 
others carry out the commands of the mind quickly with- 
out appreciable change of form, as for example the muscles 
of the fingers or the eye and its lids. (2) We can also 
extend many muscles at will. The muscle thus com- 
manded becomes not only longer for the time being but also 
thinner, like the muscles of the craning neck. (3) In 

69 



70 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

order to be able to extend and contract many of our muscles 
at will, ISTature also gives us the power to determine " the 
direction " of the movement, as in rotatory neck and body 
exercises. (4) The opposite of exercise for the voluntary 
muscles is relaxation^ or rest, one of the most important 
conditions of health, strength, skill, and beauty, a certain 
interval of rest being absolutely necessary to prevent exces- 
sive fatigue and to weave the effects of exercise into the 
muscle through nutrition. 'Not the explanation, but the 
important fact itself, is fully known to observing people in 
all the occupations of life. Startling as it may be to those 
who have not thought about it, even relaxation is largely a 
matter of voluntary decision, as the experiences of those 
who have tried have found. 

Fatigue. — When the natural resources of an organ of 
the body, such as the brain or a muscle, have been more 
or less exhausted, the condition of that organ is called 
Tatigue. Weariness is the first sign of fatigue. If this 
warning of I^ature is heeded, and the organ is allowed to 
recover through proper relaxation, such as rest, change, or 
sleep, no harm results. If, however, the organ in question 
is compelled to exhaust its natural resources still further, 
the warning weariness will become painful. When this 
more serious warning also goes by unheeded, collapse and 
death must follow. Mental health, strength, skill, and 
beauty, are so intimately involved in physical fatigue, that 
education cannot afford to make mistakes. 

The Principles of Physical Culture 

The ultimate objects of education determine the ends in 
view in physical culture. 

The Ends in View. — As intimated at the outset, the 
ends in view in physical culture are health, strength, shill, 
and heauti/, (1) When all the organs of the body perform 
their allotted work so effectively that life continues in 
perfection, the body is said to be healthy. Health, as 



PHYSICAL CULTURE 71 

statistics show, depends especially upon parentage, environ- 
ment, food, sleep, exercise, clothing, and mental states. 
Without health as I^ature's guarantee, neither life, strength, 
skill, nor beauty can long be maintained. Health, more- 
over, has much to do with happiness, goodness, and useful- 
ness. (2) Strength of body enables one to do heavy work 
and to endure under strain both of mind and body. (3) 
The ability to move quickly at a moment's notice enables 
one to save himself or others from impending harm, as 
in play or work with machinery. The ability to do some- 
thing not only quickly but perfectly by hand, foot, body, 
etc., is a valuable accomplishment. (4) Personality with 
its possibilities for social and moral good makes itself felt 
largely through the shining eye, the red cheek, the perfect 
curve, and the graceful motion of health. The teacher 
applying for a position, the teacher with her pupils, the lady 
and society, all of us need the beauty which health assures. 
The Adaptation of Possibilities. — All the physical ex- 
cellence that can be attained through exercise of the volun- 
tary muscles must be obtained, as we know from the possi- 
bilities explained, through contractions and extensions saved 
by interspersed relaxations from injurious fatigue, but the 
muscular contractions must he adapted to the special ends 
in vieiv. Subject of course to the law of habit, exercise 
consisting even of light contractions and extensions, inter- 
spersed with needed relaxations such as rest and sleep, will 
promote health; regulated combinations of energetic con- 
tractions and extensions, with the relaxations that prevent 
excessive fatigue, will produce, increase, and sustain 
strength, as in the blacksmith's arm ; much practice in rapid 
contractions and extensions, with the necessary relaxations, 
will produce agility, dexterity, etc., as in playing ball, 
making shoes, etc., and continued practice in graceful con- 
tractions and extensions will at last produce the grace so 
much desired. For those, however, who have not started 
early enough in life, even proper exercise will not do what 



72 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

it does for those who begin in time. Childhood^ youth, 
and manhood, as in mental undertakings, are the hopeful 
times. l!^evertheless, much can be accomplished by those 
who will try hard and intelligently even after forty. 

CoERELATiON OF MuscLES. — Symmetry and proportion, 
corresponding somewhat to breadth and inclusiveness in the 
cultivation of the mental faculties, are desirable physical 
perfections as elements of beauty and also as marks of 
health, all-round strength, and skill. The mutual support 
of all parts of the body, as physiology teaches, promotes the 
work of each separate organ, and thus adds immensely to 
health, growth, strength, and beauty. Accordingly, every 
muscle of the hody should he exercised. The law of habit 
makes it important that education should provide for daily 
correlation in the exercise of the muscles. 

ISTatttkal Epochs. — Genetic physiology shows that the 
body, like the mind, develops naturally by epochs. In this 
development Mature shows favors now to one and then to 
another part of the body, but never to the detriment of final 
symmetry and proportion. The defective symmetry and 
proportion with which we are all acquainted are the results 
of interference with E'ature, as in bad parentage, bad habits, 
illnesses, etc. When not perverted, !N'ature, economic in 
the midst of abundance, as she always is, employs ripening 
play-instincts to impel us to exercise the different parts of 
the body somewhat partially at appropriate times in our 
growing years. With the end of growth instinct gives way 
to reason. Accordingly, the hints of ripening Nature 
should he heeded in selecting exercises for the various parts 
of the hody. This requirement emphasizes the importance 
of training in genetic physiology for teachers. 

Individuality. — The inclination arising from abnormal 
conditions of body and mind must not be confounded with 
real individuality, or preference, in physical activity. Of 
course, these conditions should be corrected by removing 
the causes. The problem is more difficult in dealing with 



PHYSICAL CULTURE 73 

the real individuality of pupils. If the inclination toward 
this or that form of physical activity is natural — a matter 
of temperament as we say — if it is also in line with worthy 
ideals of life, it should evidently he encouraged ; otherwise, 
it should he curhed hy suggestion, explanation, restraint, 
etc. In short, individual ijiitiative should he heeded in 
selecting exercises for the body. 

The Natural Development of the Body 

(1) In childhood, play, the response to instinctive im- 
pulse, sufficiently safeguards the interests of physical 
health, strength, skill, and beauty. As a result of the 
extraordinary energy of the nutritive organs peculiar to 
childhood and youth, supported by the enforced relaxations 
of long sleeping hours, growth of body is coupled with 
health, strength, skill, etc. (2) In adult life, work in all 
its various forms as determined by vocation contributes 
largely to the physical health, strength, etc., of a great ma- 
jority of men and women. Many abnormal conditions, 
however, in younger years and in the various vocations of 
adults seriously handicap the natural development of the 
body. For this and other reasons based on the relation of 
the body to the mind and on the needs of life, systems of 
special exercise for the voluntary muscles are the great 
necessity. 

Courses of Physical Culture 

The subjoined courses are based upon the principles of 
physical culture and adapted to the times and nation to 
which we belong. 

School=Room Exercises. — Unavoidable subordination of 
the body to the mind in school work tends to damage 
physical health, strength, skill, and beauty. Play-gi'ound 
exercises and the exercise obtained on the road to and 
from school counteract this tendency to some extent, but not 
wholly. Then, too, these accessories are sometimes want- 



74. MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

ing. At any rate much can be accomplished especially for 
health and grace by special training in correct standing, 
walking, sitting down, getting up, talking, breathing, etc. 
Among the most charming books on this phase of light and 
graceful, or Delsarte, physical culture, are the manuals of 
Mrs. Louise Preece and Mrs. Emily Bishop, published 
respectively by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, IST. Y., and B. W. 
Iluebsch, ^ew York. 

PIay=Ground Exercises. — With the proper precautions 
walking, running, jumping, leaping, etc., are the right 
things for the lower limbs. Throwing, lifting, swinging, 
etc., help the arms. The trunk is effectively involved in 
these limb movements. The most effective combinations of 
limb and trunk movements are made necessary in such 
play-ground games as croquet, tennis^ ball, etc. Such games 
as foot-ball and base-ball are very effective heavy combina- 
tions, but should be so governed by rules as to make them 
much less capable of moral and physical injury. Play- 
ground exercises can often be supplemented, as in higher 
institutions, by gymnastic work, basket-ball, skating, swim- 
ming, boxing, riding, etc. Those upon whom the burden 
of organizing classes and teams devolves should have access 
to Baldwin's and other publications. 

Exercises for Busy Indoor Persons. — The best daily 
physical preparation for students, teachers, etc., is syste- 
matic exercise without apparatus. For persons occupied 
all day long indoor and who can manage to rise an hour 
before breakfast, the following course is proposed: (1) On 
getting out of bed drink several glasses of good water to 
prepare for exercise and to wash the system from witliin. 
(2) Take towel bath or tub bath, according to convenience, 
using cold water as a skin stimulus, etc. Be quick. (3) 
Stretch all the muscles of the arms and trunk simultaneously 
by rotatory movements, about twenty-five at first and finally 
several hundred. (4) Pilling and emptying the lungs at 
pretty nearly the natural intervals but more completely, go 



PHYSICAL CULTURE 75 

through wheel movements with the arms, the hands meeting 
above the head. (5) Practice low thrusts right and left 
alternately for the muscles of the heart, digestion, trunk, 
etc. (6) Practice high forward thrusts with the arms, 
standing on tip-toes, to exercise simultaneously all the 
muscles running from the back of the heel to the tips 
of the fingers. (7) Go through wheel movements with 
both arms strongly stretched and wheeled alternately, thus 
exercising many muscles simultaneously. (8) Draw the 
knees alternately up against the diaphragm for the sake of 
the organs of digestion. (9) Go through the running 
movement, but remaining on the same spot. The exercise 
is meant for the lungs, the heart, digestion, etc. (10) 
Practice rounding and hardening twirls with arms, neck, 
etc. Beginners should take these exercises slowly, not 
too many of each at one time, with " stretch " or effort in 
all. Anywhere from 'Q.ve to twenty-five minutes of time 
should be the self -judged limits. Only light-weight under- 
wear and noiseless foot-wear should be worn in these 
exercises. 

Physical Culture Methods 

Various preparations must of course be made in order 
to make physical culture recitations a success. 

Preparations for the Physical Culture Recitation. — 

(1) To begin with, the teacher of physical culture needs 
as much professional training as he can get. He should 
also make the most effective preparations for each reci- 
tation. He should pass from the simple to the complex, 
from the related known to the new, from the playful to 
the rational, in the choice of the recitation tasks. In view 
of the great possibilities for good or evil in physical culture, 
the teacher should understand the effects of an exercise on 
the organs involved before he assigns it or attempts to teach 
it. The plan of the recitation, its steps and details, should 
be mastered very definitely. And since, on the part of the 



76 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

pupil, observation must be the first formal step of the reci- 
tation, the requisite illustrating skill should be acquired 
on the part of the teacher. (2) Younger pupils should 
rarely be required to prepare in any way for the recitation 
in physical culture. Older pupils should sometimes be 
required to study explanatory texts, to keep in practice 
in acquired skills, etc. 

The Physical Culture Recitation. — (1) The thing to 
be done in class should first of all be illustrated, the pupils 
the meanwhile sharply observing. Explanation must of 
course accompany or follow the illustration. After the 
sundry precautions that may be needed by the pupil, the 
teacher requires the class to imitate his illustrations. With 
beginners it is perhaps always best to take the leading part 
in the exercises. He should see to it also that the contrac- 
tions and extensions have the desired character, such as light 
effort, energy, grace, etc. An air of business, coupled of 
course with good mood, should characterize all the teacher's 
commands. The pupil should cultivate promptness in obey- 
ing all commands. If he is required to do so he will in 
time become master of his body in any impending crisis, — - 
a thing which is seldom true of untrained persons. The 
relaxations that prevent undue fatigue should of course be 
interspersed, and the recitation period should not be too 
long. All wrong individualities should be curbed and cor- 
rected. (2) In obedience to the law of habit, the pupils 
should be required to practise the movements taken up 
until they can go through them with ease, speed, power, 
skill, and joy. In other words, the purpose of the recita- 
tion in physical culture is not only to exercise the pupil 
rightly at the time, but also to put him into the habit of 
taking right exercises in the right way. This work cor- 
responds with induction in the formal steps of instruction, 
and serves as the pupil's emancipation from the teacher in 
physical culture. With advanced classes the teacher need 
not always take part in this drill work after the preparatory 



PHYSICAL CULTURE 77 

illustrations, unless, perchance, he also needs the exercise. 
(3) The use of acquired habits, as in life, corresponds to 
deduction in formal instruction. 

Value of Physical Culture 

The real value of physical culture, as of anything else, 
decides its right to a place in education. 

School-Rooms. — At first thought systematic physical 
culture seems superfluous in country districts where pupils 
find many opportunities outside of school hours to develop 
their bodies, and yet the improper habits of walking, stand- 
ing, sitting, breathing, etc., which are so alarmingly com- 
mon in many country schools, call loudly for the corrections 
that come with good physical culture. In towns and cities 
systematic physical culture seems indispensable. Oppor- 
tunities for playingj etc., are harder to find, school grounds 
are often quite too small, and the out-door hours too few. 
Enveloped by moral proprieties, both in the personality 
of the teacher and his requirements, the light and graceful 
corrective exercises proposed for school-rooms, together with 
those of the playground, etc., admirably serve the interests 
of body and mind, not only in the country district, but in 
towns and cities. 

School Athletics. — As educational means the value of 
such heavy exercise as foot-ball, base-ball, basket-ball, etc., 
depends almost wholly upon the legislation to which games 
are subjected, the personnel of the teams, the personality 
of the trainer, and the moral atmosphere of the school to 
which the teams may belong. (1) Mass formations, as in 
foot-ball rushes, make the possibilities of putting star- 
players out of the game too great, and the risk of life and 
limb all out of proportion to the value of the things at 
stake. The appeal to the competitive impulse of young 
blood is so strong in foot-ball, base-ball, basket-ball, etc., 
that brute impulse rather than human reason rules supreme 
too frequently in the crises of defeat and victory. Statis- 



78 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

tics show that professional athletes die young, not by excep- 
tion, but as a rule. In those younger years when the ath- 
lete is most eager for laurels, the walls of his arteries, being 
quite elastic, respond readily to the hard-working heart in 
the shock of crises, but they thicken and grow brittle as a 
result, thus producing premature " old age " and early 
death. When the team consists of young men who are 
coarse in mind and language, or of boys who use cigarettes, 
strong drink, etc., or of those whose love for show is stronger 
than ambition to attain to the best ideals of school and life, 
or of boys who can easily be led to desecrate the Sabbath by 
public games, or of boys who think loudness of dress and 
manner is just the thing at home or on trips, the scholastic 
and moral possibilities of school athletics are quite disheart- 
ening. In such cases interest in practice and the prospec- 
tive games associates those who should seldom be socially 
together, thus damaging nobler ambitions and character, 
and injuring the school that tolerates these things. To 
inter-school competition in athletics this stubborn objection 
must be added to others, that it taxes the purse, that it 
consumes much time which certainly belongs to the regular 
curriculum, that it exposes the team to moral improprieties 
on trips, that at best only a few of the pupils of a school can 
participate profitably in the games, and finally that such 
healthful exercises as croquet, tennis, etc., would practically 
answer the purpose of the heavier athletic exercises without 
depriving the boys and girls of the school of important 
association on the playgrounds. The plea that the lighter 
exercises, such as croquet and tennis, are too effeminate 
depends upon definitions in the argument and upon the 
amount of brain, character, and vigor with which the games 
are played. (2) In favor of foot-ball, base-ball, basket- 
ball, etc., as school athletics is to be said, that many of 
the most objectionable possibilities can be ruled out; that 
others can be corrected by the personality of the trainer 
and by sanity in the school as a whole; and that thus 



PHYSICAL CULTURE 79 

guarded tlie possibilities for good are enormous. When 
school teams in foot-ball, base-ball, etc., are required to con- 
sist of noble-minded boys, freely determined to live up to 
the best ideals of school and school athletics, when, more- 
over, all violations of certain rules are punished by expul- 
sion from the team or even from school, these games are 
marvellously useful in cultivating physical prowess, complex 
and vigorous cooperation in attaining ends, self-control in 
crises, graceful submission to defeat, soberness of mind in 
victory, fellowship of kindred spirits, etc. In a treatise 
meant for teachers and the friends of the schools both sides 
of this vexatious argument had to be very fully stated. 

Home Exercises. — Persons too much occupied in-doors 
year in and year out can keep in fine physical condition for 
many years and live a long life by means of home exercises 
planned and carried out day after day according to the 
principles of physical culture. This thought is of special 
significance in this connection to students and teachers. 

The History of Physical Culture. — The esteem in 
which physical culture has been held has differed very 
widely in different nations and different centuries. In 
ancient times the very preservation of nations depended 
upon physical prowess in personal combat, as in Greece and 
Rome. Then, too, Greece paid much attention to gymnas- 
tics " because the beautiful was worshipped as the highest 
manifestation of the divine." The ascetic conception that 
the body was the seat of sin led the Middle Ages, except 
where chivalry controlled, to despise the body and ignore 
even its just claims. It was not until Locke's time that 
educators began to understand the true relation of the body 
and the mind. The philanthropinists, with Rousseau as 
spokesman, laid great stress on physical culture as a return 
to ^N'ature. The " new " education, resting on the clear 
teachings of Jesus Christ and the conclusions of physio- 
logical psychology, has for some years squarely faced the 
problem of physical culture in our schools. The recent in- 



80 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

troduction of physiology into the school and the provisions 
made by J^ormal schools and special schools like Dr. Sar- 
gent's at Harvard for the training of teachers, will do much 
toward a general and intelligent inclusion of physical cul- 
ture in the curriculum of schools. The old prejudice 
against the body is fast disappearing from the minds of 
the general public, as may be seen in the increased interest 
of all classes in gymnasiums and field sports. The time is 
fast approaching when we shall require all teachers to give 
as much evidence of their fitness to teach physical culture 
as of their fitness to teach reading and arithmetic. It is 
to be hoped, however, that the American people may never 
through over-enthusiasm be content to substitute brute force, 
animal impulse, or physical vanity for mental conquests 
and orthodox occupation. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Educational Review, December, 1891. 

2. N. E. A. Reports, 1903, 1905, 1906, 1907. 

3. Physical Culture Exercises. American Education, Sept., 1906. 



PART III 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 



Modern methods of instruction may be labeled thus: — Apperceptive 
sequence coupled with genetic adaptations. 



CHAPTER I 
OBJECT LESSONS 

Object lessons, as the name would indicate, are lessons 
in which sensible objects are employed. 

The Method of Object Lessons. — In order that the 
lesson may indeed be an " object '' lesson the object must 
first of all be brought within the range of the senses. The 
minuteness with which an object ought to be examined will 
of course depend on the purpose of the lesson, together with 
the ability and interest of the class. The object lesson 
should not terminate with observation unless a special pur- 
pose on the part of the teacher or some inability in the 
class makes complete instruction inadvisable. Some attempt 
at complete instruction is especially important for boys and 
girls whose school opportunities must end before they can 
take up science in the fuller sense. With beginners and 
pupils of the lower grades, however, attempts to think the 
genus and its application should undoubtedly be confined 
to obvious relations. " Home made " definitions of a form 
like a circle, for example, or a simple color-law like the 
synthesis of red and green for yellow, are not only possible 
but also highly important for the lower grades, while com- 
plete definition, scientific classification, complex laws, and 
their application should be attempted only by those who 
have the ability to wrestle with such difficulties and by those 
whose reasons may warrant such attempts. The point 
where an object lesson in the ordinary acceptation of the 
term becomes a scientific pursuit both in form and pur- 
pose is about as elusive as the rainbow terminus, l^or does 
it matter much as long as we use common sense in accom- 
plishing our purposes. 



83 



84 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Purposes of Object Lessons. — (1) One purpose of 
object lessons is to know the parts, qualities, and relations 
of objects, together with the uses to which objects may be 
put as a consequence of the parts, qualities, and relations. 
This, for example, may be one purpose in the study of a 
cylinder, a knife, a rose. (2) Important truths in the 
world of thought can often be taught most effectively by 
means of sensible objects, as in case of moral qualities like 
elasticity of conscience or the fragrance of a personality. 
In the hands of a knowing teacher object lessons may 
become marvellously effective apperceptive approaches to 
the contents of the literary masters and the abstract truths 
of philosophy. (3) Properly conducted the object lesson 
is a powerful instrument in the cultivation of perception, 
judgment, memory, attention, etc. It is this cultural 
power, coupled with the possibility of broad foundations in 
the knowledge getting process, that makes the object lesson 
the method preeminent in the first ten or fifteen years of 
the child's education. 

The History of Object Lessons. — Perhaps there never 
was a time when object lessons were not regarded as an 
essential part of primary instruction and apperceptive 
approach to higher truth. In practice, however, teachers 
have differed considerably both in purpose and extent of 
application, this one using the method only for primary 
instruction, cultural effect, or apperceptive approach to 
higher truth, that one using it now as an adjunct to other 
recitations and now as a special period. Although Locke, 
Comenius, and others advocated object lessons, the credit 
of introducing them as a distinct method of elementary 
instruction is usually given to Pestalozzi. The systems 
introduced by educators of former centuries have, in our 
days, been expanded and perfected. Modern education lays 
great stress, for example, on " I^ature Studies," often cor- 
related with the study of a literary masterpiece. The 
Normal schools provide special courses of training in object 



OBJECT LESSONS 85 

lessons, and many writers outline systematic courses of 
work for our schools. Among other suggestive authors are 
Sheldon, Calkins, Prince, Walker, and Kicks. The proba- 
bilities are that object lessons, though sometimes employed 
amiss, have come to stay. The purposes to which they can 
be put, as already explained, together with the special 
values of the various courses, now to be explained, should 
make this conclusion very evident. 

Courses of Object Lessons. — As " stuff " for the cul- 
tivation of the senses and other faculties to be allied with 
the senses in object lessons, the full course should include 
(1) the significant parts of our sensible environment, (2) 
the significant forms known to geometry, (3) the dominant 
colors in iTature and Art, (4) and the most significant 
habits both of animate and inanimate E'ature. The pro- 
posed course is also equally important as a contribution 
to reasonable fitness for ordinary life and as apperceptive 
preparation for the pursuit of science in the fuller sense. 
The lessons should begin before the child enters school; 
they should scarcely end when school years are over, the 
most interesting objects and the simplest phases coming up 
for study first, the harder objects coming later and the 
method ripening completely into science. 

Parts of Objects 

As a basis upon which to build other special object 
courses, Object Parts claim attention first. 

Course of Lessons on Parts of Objects. — Among the 
objects in ^NTature and Art to be used in lessons on " parts " 
are such as shells, flowers, acorns, oranges, insects, birds, 
wheels, porch columns, cents, scissors, lead pencils, knives, 
keys, shoes, chairs, etc. The particular assignments must 
of course conform with the principles controlling all assign- 
ments, and the teacher's preparation for the recitation must 
be just as complete as resort to " first hand " study guided 



86 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

bj helpful text-books, cyclopaedias, etc., can make it. The 
only preparation which younger pupils should make for 
the recitation is the partnership into which the teacher may 
see fit to call them in securing needed objects. 

The Method of Part Lessons. — By appeal to the analytic 
instinct, by resort to questions, required drawings or descrip- 
tions, and other possible stimuli, the teacher should cause 
the class to discover all the significant parts of an object. 
Suppose the object to be a watch. The names should of 
course be supplied as fast as the pupil needs them, but in 
strict connection with the parts to which they are to adhere. 
Drill may be necessary in order to fix the names. So far 
as possible prior to special instruction the class should be 
required to think the uses to which discovered parts, like 
the point of a lead pencil or the handle of a pocket-knife, 
may be put as a consequence of qualities. Older pupils 
may be required to consult cyclopaedias, etc., to ascertain 
the history of studied parts. " The Young Folks' Cyclo- 
paedia of Common Things," published by Henry Holt and 
Co., is a most excellent reference book both for teacher and 
class. Sheldon's " Object Lessons," published by Scribner, 
Armstrong and Co., and the revised edition of " The Child's 
Book of ]N"ature " by Hooker, should be in every school 
room. The one caution here needed is that neither teacher 
nor class should substitute " second hand " knowledge for 
knowledge that should be obtained " first hand." 

Value of Lessons on Object-Parts. — (1) There is prob- 
ably no better means of cultivating the habit of analytic 
observation and practical thoughtfulness than these lessons 
on the parts of objects. These lessons also develop the habit 
of associating words and sentences with the realities for 
which they stand in what should always be appended, 
namely, language work. (2) Analytic knowledge of objects 
is a great satisfaction to most minds, and a mighty stimulus 
in the formation of the habit of scientific inquiry. (3) 
The habit of analytic observation and the knowledge thus 



OBJECT LESSONS 87 

acquired, are among the best equipments for intelligent 
achievements in life. Apart from such equipment, theory 
is often fancy and practice full of blunders. 

Qualities of Objects 

Lessons on the various significant qualities of objects, 
including form and color, should be associated with the 
lessons on parts. 

Courses ol Lessons on Object Forms. — Among the 
object-qualities to be studied, excluding form and color for 
the present on account of their peculiar nature, are the 
many modes of resistance which objects offer to touch, 
taste, smell, hearing, sight, etc. For example, things are 
hard, soft, elastic, flexible, ductile, etc., to touch; they are 
heavy, etc., to the muscular sense ; they are pulverable, etc., 
to force; they are fusible, etc., under changes of tempera- 
ture, volatile, etc., when pressure is removed. Things are 
pungent, etc., to taste; aromatic, etc., to the sense of smell; 
loud, low, etc., to the ear ; transparent, etc., to the eye. The 
succession of assignments, as in Object Parts, must conform 
with the principles controlling all assignments, and the 
teacher's preparation for the recitation must be just as 
complete as resort to first hand study guided by helpful 
reference books can make it. Pupils may help to secure 
materials. 

The Method of Lessons on Qualities. — By appeal to 
the serviceable sense-interests, coupled with the teacher's 
example, needed directions, etc., the teacher should cause 
the class to experience all significant qualities of objects, 
minerals, liquids, plants, animals, etc., first hand. The 
names of the qualities should be firmly knit to the experi- 
ence, as in the case of object-parts. The pupil should espe- 
cially be led to discover the uses to which objects or parts 
of objects, like crayon, salt, roses, bells, glass, etc., can be 
put just because they have these qualities. Language work 
should of course be combined with these lessons. 



88 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Value of Lessons on Qualities. — The study of sensible 
qualities is the study of the forces present in the world of 
matter. To know these attributes of environment is to have 
the necessary key to power. 

Form 

Special lessons on the significant forms known to geom- 
etry should, for reasons already stated, be added to and 
combined with other object lessons. 

Courses of Lessons on Object Forms. — Among the 
geometrical forms which the purposes of education require 
to be studied are (1) the various kinds of lines: straight, 
broken, curved, parallel, oblique; (2) the angles: right, 
acute, obtuse; (3) the polygons: all kinds of triangles, all 
kinds of quadnlaterals together with hexagons, heptagons, 
octagons, nonagons, decagons; (4) the circle with its dozen 
or more suggestions ; ( 5 ) all kinds of polyhedrons, such as 
the three or four kinds of prisms together with the pyramid 
and its suggestions, the plinth and its suggestions; (6) all 
sorts of round bodies, such as cylinders, cones, spheres, 
ovoids, ellipsoids, and the suggestions; (7) conic sections, 
such as the ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, and the sugges- 
tions; (8) complex forms, such as the catenary, spiral, 
cycloid, etc. 

The succession of assignments should be, as it can be, 
rigidly apperceptive, the above catalogue indicating loosely 
at least what assignments should succeed each other. The 
teacher's preparation for the recitation, as before, must be 
just as complete as first hand study, helpful reference, or 
special training in geometry and drawing, can make it. 

Every school-room should be supplied with a box of 
geometrical forms. If the teacher cannot make these forms 
he will probably find a way to secure them by purchase from 
the Milton Bradley Company, Springfield, Mass., who are 
ready, for that matter, to supply all the special materials 
for object lessons. Supplementary objects should be col- 
lected by the pupils in accordance with directions. 



OBJECT LESSONS 89 

The Method of Form Lessons. — (1) Children seldom 
see, hear, etc., all that we want them to see, hear, etc., in 
object lessons, nor do they bring much natural caution into 
the required perceptions. In order to cause them to see 
all the edges of an object in a form lesson exactly the teacher 
should present the object, say a cylinder, in full view of 
the class, asking the right questions coupled with sugges- 
tive motions, drawings, etc. The name of the form observed 
must be given in strictest association with the observation 
of the form. To impress the form facts learned thoroughly 
the class may be required, under proper directions, to con- 
struct the form. Paste-board, soft wood, etc., are convenient 
materials. (2) At least one larger and one smaller speci- 
men of the form to be taught should be compared with the 
first one, in order to lead the class to abstract the " form '' 
from the size, etc., of the object used. When the prepara- 
tory comparisons have been made correctly the pupils should 
be required to define the form studied. In older classes 
the " home made " definitions may be compared with dic- 
tionary statements to stimulate exact effort. (3) The pupil 
should be encouraged to discover many occurrences of the 
studied form in his environment. This form-analysis of 
the world usually proves very enjoyable. The pupil should 
also be led to see why this form rather than that is used 
in I^ature and Art. The power-study of forms will make 
the pupil inventive and teach him how to help himself in 
many practical difiiculties. The cesthetic power of forms 
should also be carefully explained. 

Value of Form Lessons. — (1) The study of form is most 
excellent exercise for the eye, the judgment, the imagina- 
tion, the will, etc. (2) A knowledge of forms is essential 
in the interpretation of the universe as organized for ser- 
vice and beauty. (3) Both the culture and the knowl- 
edge obtained in the study of form is an essential equipment 
in the study of geometry, art, and in practical life. 



90 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 



Color 

Lessons on color and its significant phases botb. in E'ature 
and Art should be connected with other object lessons. 

Course of Color Lessons. — Color lessons should begin 
very early in the life of the child, and the territory to be 
covered can hardly be covered before college days. Among 
the significant color-tasks to be taken up are the following : 

The Matching of Coloks. — The ability to distinguish 
quickly and without error even the most significant colors 
in E'ature and Art is a most important attainment in any 
education. The pupil must be assisted in this difficult 
acquirement by the exercise of " matching " colors, as it is 
commonly termed. The exercise consists of placing on any 
convenient surface, say a table, a color not named for the 
pupil, and requiring him to choose ribbons, etc., from a 
" color heap,'' placing the " match " color on the " place " 
color while lighter and darker varieties of the same color are 
placed right and left of the place color. 

Tests roK Color-blindness. — The course of a ship is 
made known by means of colors on which seamen have 
agreed. On railroads instructions on which all sorts of 
important results depend are transmitted in part at least 
by color signals. Similar services are rendered by systems 
of color in light-houses, meteorological posts, and even in 
war. The ability to distinguish significant colors quickly 
and unerringly is therefore of startling importance. For a 
large per cent, of the boys and girls that go through our 
schools this important ability is impossible because of blind- 
ness to such significant colors as red, green, etc. These boys 
and girls, the number of boys subject to this sort of blind- 
ness exceeding that of girls, can be sifted out by color 
matching exercises, and properly advised as to the future. 

Language of Coloes. — In addition to the conventional 
significance of certain colors just noticed, many colors have 
acquired symbolic power, partly based on nature, to excite 



OBJECT LESSONS 91 

or express emotions, such as anger, grief, love, humility, 
etc. To be at home in this symbolic language must be 
looked upon as quite an accomplishment. 

Pkoduction of the Solar Spectrum. — According to 
the now generally accepted Young-Helmholtz theory, con- 
veniently stated for teachers in the Bradley Company "Color 
in the School-Room," " All color in l^ature is contained in 
sunlight, which is practically white light. When a beam 
of sunlight, admitted into a darkened room, passes through 
a glass prism it is spread out like a fan into a band of 
beautiful colors, beginning at one end with a dark red, 
which runs into an orange, and then through yellow, green, 
and blue to violet, which gradually fades away into dark- 
ness." This band of colors is termed the Solar Spectrum. 
The production of this solar spectrum is explained as 
follows : " The beam of sunlight is composed of a great 
number of different kinds of rays, which in passing through 
the prism are refracted or bent from their direct course, and 
some are bent more than others ; the red least of all, and the 
violet most." To account still more fully for the phenome- 
non, " it is supposed that light is propagated by waves or 
undulations, in an extremely rare substance termed ether, 
which is supposed to occupy all space and transparent bodies." 
The supposed undulatory approach of a sunbeam produces 
the optic effect of rays, and may be likened to sound waves 
in the air or ripples on a pond. The pupil who is ready 
to understand this prismatic experiment will pursue the 
further study of color with more intelligence and pleasure. 

The Mixin^g of Colors. — " If having a prismatic spec- 
trum thrown on a screen in a dark room we hold two small 
mirrors in the path of light, one so placed as to receive, for 
example, the red rays and the other the violet rays, the 
mirrors may be so moved as to reflect the red and the violet 
rays on one spot on another screen. The result of this 
arrangement will be a mingling of the two colors to pro- 
duce a color between the violet and the red usually called 



92 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

purple. And so we may select any other two colors and 
thus determine what color is produced by the mingling of 
any two or more spectrum colors. But it is very incon- 
venient to make such tests, even with the best apparatus and 
most favorable conditions.'' It is possible, however, to pro- 
duce practically the same effects by means of the " color 
wheel '' and the " Maxwell disks." If graduated disks are 
used, the exact proportion entering into composition may 
be observed and recorded. Very satisfactory results may be 
obtained by the use of colored tissue paper, colored crayon, 
water colors, commercial paints, etc. A knowledge of such 
color synthesis is of great practical and commercial 
importance. 

The Analysis of Colok Compounds. — The colors found 
both in !^ature and Art are generally composite colors, as 
in leaves, flowers, ribbons, etc. By combining and adjust- 
ing Mr. Maxwell's graduated disks, and revolving them on 
a color wheel or spinning them on " tops," it is possible to 
imitate and thus analyze the color of leaves, ribbons, cloth, 
etc. Skill in such analysis is not only a great satisfaction, 
but of practical and commercial importance. 

The Discovery of Coloe-Complements. — " As white 
light is the sum of all color, if we take from white light a 
given color, the remaining color is the Complement of the 
given color. This is a process of subtraction in optic effects, 
and is accomplished by fatiguing the eye on the given color. 
When, for example, the eye is fatigued by looking intently 
for a few seconds at a red spot on a white wall [or red tissue 
paper placed on a black card in strong light], a faint tint 
of bluish green is seen." This is the accidental or com- 
plementary color of the given red. " Theoretically the com- 
plementary of yellow is a very slight violet blue, and of blue 
an orange yellow. The complementary of green is violet 
red and of violet a yellow green or green yellow. The com- 
plement of red is blue green, and of orange a green blue." 
Skill in discovering color-complements is valuable in build- 
ing color harmonies. 



OBJECT LESSONS 93 

The Production of Color-Harmonies. — " Two colors 
are said to be in harmony or to combine hannoniously if 
tbe effect is pleasing when they are in juxtaposition or are 
used in composition." Complementary colors, for example, 
are harmonious, unless in composition some of them should 
be in contradiction. For the explanation of the five or six 
kinds of color harmony the reader is referred to the Bradley 
books. Skill in building color harmonies is of immense 
importance to personal attire, house-furnishing, house paint- 
ing, cloth manufacture, etc. 

Standard Colors. — Standard colors are the full tone 
colors of the solar spectrum. " The amount that rays of 
light are refracted from a straight line in passing through 
a prism is in proportion to the number of waves or undula- 
tions per second, and in inverse proportion to the length of 
the waves. The red rays are refracted the least and are 
the longest, while violet rays are refracted the most and 
are the shortest." The colors resulting from the following 
wave-lengths are recognized as standards: red, 6600; orange, 
6100 ; yellow, 5800 ; green, 5200 ; blue, 4700 ; and violet, 
4200. The figures represent ten millionths of a millimetre. 

Color Scales of the Solar Spectrum. — " Any pure 
or full color mixed with white, or reduced by strong light," 
is termed a Tint. "A full color in shade, i.e., with a low 
degree of illumination," is termed a Shade. '^ A Scale is 
a series of colors consisting of a pure or full color at the 
centre and graduated by a succession of steps to light tint 
on one side and a deep shade on the other." In other words, 
a color scale is any spectrum transition from tint through 
tone or fulness into shade, and there must be as many pos- 
sible color scales as there are standards or tones in the 
spectrum. "A color mixed with a smaller quantity of 
another color is called a Rue." A knowledge of color scales 
and skill in basing color matching, color mixing, etc., on 
such knowledge are of much importance to teachers. 

Broken Colors. — ^^ In addition to the spectrum stand- 



94 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

ards and intermediate hues, and tints and shades, there is 
another class of colors which in general terms may be called 
Broken Colors. A broken color, as a broken red for example, 
is a standard red mixed with neutral gray, that is, with 
black and white. In still other words, a broken color is a 
tint of that color in shadow. In Nature nearly all colors 
are broken." The same thing may be said of tapestries, 
carpets, ladies' dress goods, etc. " Ecru," for example, is a 
broken orange yellow, whose proportions in terms of 100 
are orange 12, yellow 15, white 17, and black 56. Knowl- 
edge of this sort is interesting to pupils and important to 
teachers. 

The Order of Coloe Lessoi^s. — In the succession of 
color-lesson undertakings the teacher must be governed 
partly by the requirements of apperception loosely indi- 
cated by the order of topics under Course of Color Lessons, 
partly by the stimuli with which he may be able to appeal 
to the pupil, partly by the pressure of economy, and partly 
by the possibilities of his own training and immediate 
access to books, etc. 

The Method of Color-Lessons. — Important prepara- 
tions must be made for most color-lessons before the recita- 
tion can be a success. 

Preparation for Color-lessons. — (1) The necessary 
materials for a color-lesson must be procured. The pupil 
ought to be called into wisely supervised partnership with 
the teacher in procuring the materials. For some things, 
such as a color wheel, prism, etc., the teacher may of course 
have to ask the school directors. Every school-room in which 
color-lessons are to be taught should, if possible, be supplied 
mth prisms, color wheel with Maxwell disks to suit, color- 
tops with corresponding disks, colored crayons, water-colors, 
sheets of colored tissue paper that does not contain arsenic. 
Silks, worsteds, etc., should be added. Pupils should be 
encouraged to collect colored leaves, etc. When the time 
for recitation has come, the necessary materials should be 



OBJECT LESSONS 95 

on hand and in working order. (2) It will be necessary for 
the teacher to make many experiments with prisms, color- 
wheel, color-tops, etc., to be ready for the recitation tasks. 
(3) The pupils should be required to make such prepara- 
tions as the nature of the case may demand. As a rule, only 
older pupils can be expected to make formal preparations 
for color-lessons. 

The Eecitation of Color-Lessons. — (1) All color- 
lessons, like other lessons, should begin with observation. 
It is usually easy to interest pupils in color-lessons. Be- 
ginners should be taught by means of experiments made by 
the teacher. He must find ways to cause his class to watch 
all that happens, and to understand the results somewhat, 
as in mixing colors, finding color-complements, building 
color harmonies, color-charts, etc. Older boys and girls 
should, under proper directions, be led to make experiments 
for themselves, watching sharply what happens under the 
exact conditions. The teacher must lead them to under- 
stand the results as fully as possible. (2) Induction should 
follow observation. In other words, the pupil must be led 
to see what happens again and again under the same con- 
ditions until by comparison of results he arrives at generic 
conclusions, as when in mixing yellow and blue tissue paper 
in strong sunlight the pupil discovers the result always to 
be green. Trying yellow and blue crayon on the black- 
board, yellow and blue disks on the color-tops, yellow and 
blue rays of the prismatic spectrum, etc., he still finds the 
same result. He has thus found the " green " law. The 
induction is the same for color-complements, color-har- 
monies, etc. (3) And deduction should follow induction. 
In other words, the pupil should be led to use the color- 
laws as much as possible. It is thus that science becomes 
art. 

All the technical language to be developed in connection 
with color-lessons should be introduced in strict association 
with that which it expresses. Language work may be effec- 
tively connected with color-lessons. 



96 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Value of Color-Lessons. — To appreciate the value of 
lessons on color, the reader must understand their efficiency 
as a means in culture and instruction. 

1. There is a general agreement among educators that 
color-lessons when properly given exercise and improve 
all the faculties of the mind. The Methods student should 
be required to prove this conclusion. 

2. The knowledge of color is interesting for its own sake 
and a means in the interpretation of the universe as organ- 
ized for service and beauty. 

3. Both the culture and the knowledge acquired in color- 
lessons serve many of the ends of life, and cannot be 
omitted in our times without serious disadvantage to mil- 
lions of people. 

4. All teachers should therefore be able to give such 
lessons. The evidence of such ability should be as much in 
demand by those who license and employ teachers as the 
evidence of ability in the other branches of the curriculum. 
E'ormal schools should offer the most thorough course in 
colors and in the method of teaching colors. The task of 
thus equipping teachers must fall partly on the department 
of physics and manual training and partly on that of peda- 
gogy. The most remarkable progress along these lines is 
visible everywhere, and the prospects are decidedly 
encouraging. 

Nature Study 

When love of l^ature, and loving communion with 
ISTature, rather than her uses or other desirable results in 
education, are the special ends in view, the study of Nature, 
to distinguish it on the one hand from ordinary object 
lessons and on the other hand from formal science in its 
process and results, is technically termed Nature Study. 

Course of Nature=Study Lessons. — The concept just 
defined at once lays the stress on (1) the interesting habits 
of ]^ature, (2) on her secret haunts, (3) on her beauties. 



OBJECT LESSONS 97 

(4) on the endearing language with which the lover of 
l^atnre must express the joys of his communion with 
Nature, (5) etc. The concept in question also lays stress 
on the domains of mineralogy, botany, and zoology, but 
does not rigidly confine us to these domains. 

BoTAi^Y. — The habit of observing plants should be cul- 
tivated early and late in our schools. The teacher should 
strive to rouse great interest in these observations, leading 
the children to think for themselves. Our pupils should be 
taught the names of the common plants, flowers, trees, etc., 
in their neighborhood, in connection with some of the most 
interesting facts pertaining to such growths. 

Zoology. — The habit of observing the insects, birds, 
mammals, etc., in the neighborhood, should be developed. 
As in the domain of botany, the teacher should try to arouse 
interest in these animal studies, leading the pupils to think 
for themselves and to come into touch with the heart of 
E^ature. Our pupils should be taught the names of common 
animals, their homes, together with the interesting facts. 

Note. — Courses similar to those just suggested for plants 
and animals, should be explained in mineralogy, physiology, 
etc. But, although in the teacher's mind there should be 
some system of selecting subjects, the selection should 
always be in harmony with the distinguishing concept of 
N'ature Study. 

The Method of Nature-Study Lessons. — In accordance 
with the special ends in view much informality or freedom 
must be allowed in the selection of materials for the lesson. 
All the pupils should be urged to keep the heart open to all 
the calls of the iN'ature in the neighborhood, and no rigid 
limits should be set. E'er should the formal steps of science 
be taken with the usual stress on each and in the usual rigid 
succession. Free conversation, impulsive questions, almost 
anything short of impropriety, should be allowed in the 
recitation if it brings the pupil near to N^ature's heart. The 
development of the iN'ature Study concept has already pro- 
7 



98 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

duced a large and stimulating literature on Nature Study, 
but, while such help points to the open doors to fertile 
domains, stimulates the pupil to study, and offers sugges- 
tions on the way, the study of such books is not Nature 
Study either in spirit or method. The attacks must be 
more direct and free. 

Value of Nature Study. — (1) To be near Nature's 
heart in the way pupils arrive there through Nature Study 
is an immense gain to happiness, first for those who can or 
must spend their lives in field and meadow, in forest or 
mountain, and then also for those city people whose only 
direct contact with Nature is the Summer vacation. Nature 
Study as set forth is a veritable revelation of mysteries — 
a glimxpse into the thoughts of God, of which Nature is a 
rich embodiment. (2) Beyond the happiness thus obtained 
is the use of the knowledge and culture thus acquired to 
farming, fruit growing, care of animals, etc. The prac- 
tical results of Nature Study, not to say anything of the 
happiness coming from felt nearness to God, are worth all 
the time they require. The teacher who cannot or will not 
teach Nature Study is sadly out of place in our public 
schools. 

History of Nature Study 

The nature-study movement as distinct from science is 
among the very latest things in education. School children, 
as statistics showed, were beginning to " grow away " from 
Nature. The strictly scientific approach to insect and 
flower, for example, was too cold a process. Genetic adjust- 
ment of the method of approaching life around us was 
therefore substituted, and the child at once began to respond 
with energy. The living wholes instead of dead dissections 
now became«*-the object of study. The stuff to be included 
in the course could not be catalogued alike for every school. 
The locality to which the school belonged became the field of 
interest, and whatever became attractive to the pupil was 



OBJECT LESSONS 99 

included as a subject. This movement in favor of tlie seek- 
ing individuality, this refreshing recognition of one's self 
in N^ature, has become the golden gateway to the wonder- 
land that lies about the boys and girls almost anywhere. 
Among the men who have helped the movement powerfully 
are Professor Earl Barnes, Dr. Schmucker, etc. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. The Nature Study Movement. Bailey, N. E. A. Report, 1903. 

2. The Teaching of Nature Study. American Education, Decem- 
ber, 1907. 

3. Foundations of Nature Study. Pedagogical Seminary, April, 
1900. 

4. The Study of Nature. Dr. Schmucker, Lippincott's Educational 
Series, 1908. 



CHAPTER II 

READING 

Nature 

Thought can be expressed in such sight symbols as 
words, figures, etc. As soon as the system of symbols used 
to express thought through sight is mastered by any one, 
he can of course get thoughts expressed by means of such 
symbols. Thought gotten through sight symbols can be 
expressed by using oral equivalents for sight symbols, the 
oral equivalents appealing to the mind through hearing. 
The processes described taken singly or together constitute 
^' Reading." 

Reading Defined. — In short, reading is the process of 
getting tJiovghts through sight symbols and expressing them 
through oral equivalents. Or still more briefly, reading 
is thought-getting through word-getting. 

The Subject of Reading 

Analysis shows that the stuff upon which the mind must 
work in learning to read and in reading after learning how, 
consists of letters, syllables, words, and sentences. The 
processes to which attack upon this stuff gives rise in oral 
reading are respectively enunciation, syllabication and 
articulation, pronunciation, comprehension, and expression. 
Although sight-reading, as it is called, is well enough de- 
fined as getting thoughts expressed by sight symbols through 
these symbols, the process can probably not be separated 
from the oral accompaniments with which it becomes un- 
avoidably associated in the learning process. 

Enunciation. — (1) The act of giving a letter a sound 

for which it stands in a spoken word is called Enunciation, 

as in the oral analysis of the word bell, where the e has a 

short sound represented by e, and one I is silent. Lisping 

100 



READING 101 

is the substitution of the tJi sound for the sound of s un- 
marked, as in sing. (2) The rules to which custom sub- 
jects us in enunciating letters are termed Laws of Enun- 
ciation. Thus s is nearly always like a z^ except with f, k, 
p, and t, as in sing, sings, sit, sits, tease, teases, house, 
houses^ etc. X is like gz before accented vowels, like ks 
in other places, as example, exercise, excellent, etc. Th is 
dull in pronouns, adverbs, etc., as in thee, those, there, etc. 
Wh is like Jiiv, except in who, as in where, why, when, etc. 
B should not usually be sounded like p, nor p like h; d not 
like t, nor t like d; v not like w, nor w like v, etc. Thorough 
training and an " up to date '' dictionary are indispensable 
equipments, especially in connection with a language in 
which the value of letters is ambiguous. 

Syllabication. — (1) Syllables are the parts into which 
convenient vocal pause divides words, as in the word suc- 
ceeded, where two pauses produce three syllables. The 
analysis of words into syllables is termed Syllabication, 
as in con-se-cra-tion. (2) iVs a rule — and this is the only 
law to which syllabication is subject — all prefixes and suf- 
fixes form separate syllables, as in com-pre-hend-ed. There 
are exceptions. (3) The term Articulation denotes the 
process of bringing the syllables of a word, like the bones 
of a finger, into right connections. Articulation, unlike 
syllabication, is an oral synthesis. 

Pronunciation. — (1) Pronunciation is the uninterrupted 
articulation of a word with stress on one or more 
syllables. The stress put on important syllables of a 
spoken word is termed Accent, and the selection of 
the syllables for such accent, including the act of putting 
it on the selected syllable or syllables, is termed Accen- 
tuation, as in the word com-pre-hen'sion, where the less 
forcible stress put on the accessory syllable com is called the 
" secondary " accent, while the stronger stress put on the 
fundamental syllable hen is called " primary " accent. 
(2) The rules to which " convention," or custom, subjects 



102 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

US in accentuation are termed Accentuation Laws. Thus, 
derivative v^ords take for a time, if not permanently, the 
accent of the original words from which they are formed, 
as in contentment, apprehend ; ease of utterance frequently 
I)revails over derivation in determining the accents of a 
word, as in utensil and excellent ; in words of two syllables 
there is a tendency to accent the first syllable of a noun 
and the last of a verb, as in convert, accent, record; in 
words of three or more syllables there is a strong tendency 
to accent the antepenult, as in contemplate, eloquent, intri- 
cate. There are many exceptions to these tendencies. Con- 
stant reference to dictionaries is the only safe thing. 

Comprehension. — To " comprehend " in reading is to 
get the thought expressed in sentences. The ability to 
comprehend the thought of a sentence through the eye comes 
through sentential association of sight words with spoken 
words. To run through a sentence with the eye or pro- 
nounce all the words without comprehension is not reading 
at all. Without comprehension on the part of one who 
reads, i.e., goes through the motions of reading, he cannot 
effectively bring thought to listeners. 

Expression. — The word " expression " used technically 
in a description of oral reading denotes those adaptations 
in pronunciation, posture, face, and gestures, by means of 
which thought is effectively conveyed to hearers. The most 
important adaptations in pronunciation are pitch, time, 
force, quality, emphasis, and fluency. 

Pitch. — The degree of elevation of the voice in reading 
is termed Pitch. Pitch is high, medium, low, monotonous, 
or varied. It is through this in part at least that sentiment, 
or feeling, must be expressed in reading. 

Time. — Every variety of pace, or movement, in reading 
is termed Time. The time, or rate, may be fast, ordinary, 
slow, or varied. It is through time that excitement, self- 
control, etc., are expressed. 

Force. — Degree of stress in reading a sentence is termed 



READING 103 

Eorce. Force may be energetic or intense. In either case 
it may be subdued, moderate, extreme, etc. It is tlie mis- 
sion of force to express strong feeling and to help the ear of 
the distant hearer. 

Quality. — Tone of voice in reading is termed Quality. 
The voice may be pure, aspirated, guttural, nasal, rotund. 
It is through such adaptations that all shades of feeling may 
be effectively expressed. 

Emphasis. — (1) Any impressive way of uttering words 
or phrases in reading is termed Emphasis. The four species 
of emphasis are stress, pause, inflection, and time. The 
extra force with which some word or phrase is uttered 
in reading is termed stress. Stress may be compound, 
intermittent, median, radical, or vanishing. When, after 
uttering some word in a sentence, the reader stops, or allows 
an interval of time, before he proceeds, the emphasis is 
termed Pause. Graduated rise and fall in pitch is termed 
Inflection. Quick, ordinary, or slow utterance of a word 
is called Time emphasis. (2) The rules to which the 
nature of the mind subjects us in emphasis are termed 
Laws of Emphasis. Thus, words expressing new ideas, 
important ideas, and contrasted ideas are emphasized in 
effective reading. 

Fluency. — (1) IJninterrupted flow of words in reading 
is termed Fluency. Fluency is not less but more effective 
when the pitch, time, force, quality, and emphasis are prop- 
erly woven in with it. (2) Involuntary hesitation in pro- 
nouncing the next word is called Stuttering. The involun- 
tary repetition of initial parts of a word in pronouncing 
it is termed Stammering. Both are awkward, and some- 
times distressing obstructions to fluency.* 

* It was deemed necessary to explain enunciation, syllabication, 
pronunciation, expression, etc., as fully as has been done, so that 
clearly seeing the tasks to be accomplished in teaching reading, the 
teacher might find the means to ends in the method of teaching. 
For fuller explanation of all points involved, including posture, face, 
and gesture, the student is referred to any treatise on elocution. 



104 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

The Psychology of Reading 

The mental action to whicli learning to read and reading 
gives rise is somewhat complex and sui generis. 

Observation. — (1) The conventional sight symbols of 
reading must be learned by perceptive association with 
speech. This is a complex combination of the sense of sight, 
the sense of hearing, memory, and will. Whether the sym- 
bol to be learned is a word, a syllable, a letter, or another 
mark, makes no essential difference. 

Introduction. — By a short-cut process of induction, 
hardly amounting to more than the recognition of similar- 
ity, words, syllables, letters, and so forth, used as sight 
symbols become laws. 

Habit. — If the learner is unfortunate enough to be under 
teachers whose enunciation, pronunciation, etc., are defec- 
tive, he is likely to acquire the same defective habits, and, 
by arrest of development, to be a slave to them as long as 
he lives. 

Deduction. — The use which the reader makes of words, 
phonograms, habits, etc., in reading, is really a deductive 
process often consisting of quite difficult analysis and 
synthesis. 

Courses of Reading 

The genetic adjustment of the stuff to be taught in ap- 
perceptive sequence requires three courses in the teaching of 
reading. 

Course for Beginners. — (1) A new skill, motor expres- 
sion involving imitation and competition, and story-life, 
please the beginner. (2) The beginner may accordingly be 
expected to acquire a large vocabulary of sight-words 
through sentences. His love for " the story " combining 
with his love of motion cooperate powerfully to bring about 
the results we want. The new power which he gains with 
greater and greater rapidity through phonograms, and of 



READING 105 

which he soon grows more and more conscious, make him 
respond with energy to exercises in enunciation, articula- 
tion, pronunciation, etc. In the sequence of lessons, apper- 
ception should control. 

Intermediate Course. — (1) The desire to know what 
books contain, coupled with the strong desire to think what 
others think, ripens quite rapidly between the ages of eleven 
and fifteen or sixteen. (2) The average grammar school 
pupil will accordingly respond with energy to efforts on the 
part of the school to perfect the mechanics of reading and 
to master reading as thought-getting. The course should 
make it possible for him to read ordinary books and period- 
icals intelligently, so that if he must leave school at sixteen, 
he may be able to continue his education indefinitely. 

Higher Courses. — (1) The high school pupil may be 
taken up with many ambitions, but he cannot help seeing the 
invaluable service of books as tools. (2) Expressive reading, 
supplementary reading, periodicals, the library, the reading 
circle, etc., now appeal to him, and he should have the 
strong support of the school. The pupil's individuality 
should be recognized, but superior personality should 
supervise. 

TEACHING READING 

The relation of the stuff to the learner must determine 
what the methods of instruction ought to be. This relation 
has been variously interpreted by educators, and reduced 
to various psychological methods of teaching beginners to 
read. 

Methods of Teaching Beginners 

The ABC Method. — (1) The sound or sounds for 
which a letter is made to stand is often very effectively 
suggested by the conventional name of the letter. Such 
is the case, for example, with b, d, f, h, j, k, m, n, p, q, r, 
t, V, w, and z. With other letters this is only apologetically 
true, as with a, c, e, g, i, o, s, u, x, and y. It is therefore 



106 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

possible to teach pronunciation bj teaching the names of 
the letters employed, and thus suggesting sound values. 
This method of teaching beginners to read is familiarly 
known as the " ABC " method. (2) Some things must be 
said in favor of this ABC method, but this especially that 
it combines spelling with pronunciation, and thus tends 
to make good spellers. Then, too, it does not cumber the 
mind of beginners in reading with burdensome diacritical 
marks. On the other hand, the fatal things that must be 
said against the method are that it is not apperceptive by 
nature, because the learner, if his mother tongue is English, 
begins with word- wholes ; that it puts " the cart before the 
horse " ; that in many instances due to our orthography the 
names fail to suggest the sounds effectively, thus making the 
child too dependent on the teacher ; that it hinders thought- 
getting, and that it is thus uninteresting ; and that it tends 
to retard the progress of the pupil in acquiring fluency. 

The Phonetic Method. — (1) Inasmuch as the English 
language has' approximately forty sounds, the addition of 
fourteen new letters would make it possible to denote all 
these sounds separately. This method of teaching begin- 
ners to read may be called the Phonetic method. (2) The 
advantages are important. The method rids us of silent 
letters, double letters, equivalents, and irregularities. The 
learner can pronounce any word made up of such letters as 
soon as he knows the sounds of the letters used, thus eman- 
cipating himself very quickly. (3) More time is left for 
thought-getting. This fact coupled v,dth earlier fluency 
makes the method not only interesting but effective. On the 
other hand some serious practical difficulties handicap us in 
the use of the Phonetic method. As long as only twenty-six 
letters are used in books, etc., diacritical helps must be 
learned at all events in the learner's emancipation from the 
teacher, and this might as well, perhaps better, be done at 
once. Then, too, by nature it is just as unapperceptive as 
the ABC method. 



READING 107 

The Phonic Method. — In addition to the ABC method 
and the Phonetic method a third alphabetic method is pos- 
sible. The twenty-six letters of our language, or combina- 
tions of these letters like gh, th, etc., can be specially marked 
to help them effectively to represent the sound or sounds 
for which they are to stand. This system of diacritics is 
used in our dictionaries. When used to start with in teach- 
ing reading, it is called the Phonic method. There are 
three possible variations of the Phonic method. 

a. The pupil may be introduced to the sound of the letter 
diacritically marked, if this be necessary, by direct associa- 
tion of form and sound, as in writing the letter and sound- 
ing it for the pupil. Letters thus taught are then to be 
combined into the words for the sake of which they were 
taught, as c a t, cat. This word-building process is 
synthetic. 

h. The sounds to be taught may first be presented to the 
pupil's ear through oral analysis of a known and simple 
spoken word, as sings, sings, the teacher writing the let- 
ters diacritically marked, but some distance apart on the 
board, thus associating the form of each letter with its 
sound. The word must then be correctly written and the 
pupil drilled, after which new words can be pronounced 
by means of the letters learned. Beginning with the oral 
analysis of a known spoken word, the process completes 
itself in the visible synthesis of the word through which the 
letters are introduced, and the pronunciation of a new sight- 
word is analysis by eye followed by oral synthesis. 

c. The sounds to be taught may first be presented to the 
pupil by calling his attention to them in ISTature, then 
requiring the pupil to imitate the sounds, and representing 
them to him on the board by means of letters diacritically 
marked. The letters must thereupon be combined into 
sight-words and pronounced, thus completing the process. 
It is in this way, for example, that the word so can be taught 
by imitating the sound which a goose makes when you pass 



108 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

and the o of a sudden surprise. Beginning with imita- 
tion, followed by association of sound and form, the method 
completes itself in sight and oral synthesis combined. 

It must be said in favor of the Phonic method in all 
its varieties that it slowly but surely emancipates the learner 
from the teacher, and that it prepares the pupil for intelli- 
gent use of the dictionary. Wlien the pupil is exercised 
constantly in marking the letters of words already learned, 
it tends to make good spellers. ^Hien the sounds are intro- 
duced through the oral analysis of known spoken words 
or by imitation from I^ature, the Phonic method is also 
sufficiently apperceptive. In the hands of a resourceful 
teacher the " JSTature " method becomes startlingly interest- 
ing. And even the burden of the necessary diacritical en- 
cumbrance can be relieved by ingeniously suggestive stories, 
which also add to the interest. On the other hand, it must 
be said that for the first year or two — just when it is 
specially wrong — the pupil is too much weighted down 
with diacritical burdens. This hinders the attention to 
thought-getting which it is so important to associate with 
word-getting in teaching reading. It also interferes seri- 
ously with fluency by the habit of sight-analysis which it 
tends to form in the pupil. 

The Pollard Method. — The Pollard method, so called 
after Mrs. Pollard, hegins with sounds, as a and m^, prompt- 
ing the pupil to find these sounds first in E"ature and then 
to imitate them, as already explained. It groups these 
sounds into " families," as arrij at, ach, and " keys,'' as b, f , 
1, t. It employs a story called the " Johnny Story " to re- 
lieve and interest the learner. It resorts to analogies, 
association, and imagination, as when the child is required 
to imitate what the lamb, rooster, dog, etc., say. It builds 
words, visible words, pronounces them, and then recognizes 
these uttered words as names of objects, actions, qualities. 
It aims from the beginning at the child's emancipation in 
pronunciation. In the hands of a resourceful well-trained 



READING 109 

English-speaking teacher it makes defective enunciation 
almost impossible. In general it has the merits and defects 
already explained in the last paragraph under the Phonic 
method. 

The Word Method. — (1) It is possible to begin with 
words instead of letters in teaching reading. The method 
is then called the Word method. The word may be pre- 
sented to the pupil in several ways. A correctly spoken 
word, the name which the pupil has associated with kno"wn 
objects, actions, qualities, etc., may be written on the board, 
thus passing apperceptively from the spoken to the written 
word. Words thus taught are then built into the sentence 
for whose sake they were selected, thus combining thought- 
getting with word-getting, and preparing for effective ex- 
pression in reading. The word to be taught may be written 
on the board and pronounced for the pupil, thus introducing 
him directly. By means of objects, actions, etc., the mean- 
ing of words thus taught can be added. The words are then 
ready for sentences as before. (2) In favor of the word- 
method — especially when it begins with the knowm spoken 
names of objects, actions, qualities, etc. — it must be said 
that it begins where mother begins in building the child's 
vocabulary. It is therefore both natural and interesting 
as a beginning. On the other hand, against it must be said 
that, unless it is supplemented by much practice in phonic 
analysis and synthesis, it keeps the learner dependent too 
absolutely on the teacher. If the words used in this connec- 
tion are too non-phonetic, the phonic drills to be associated 
with this Word method will be almost impossible. And 
when the Avords are not selected with the building of certain 
sentences in view, the introduction to reading as thought- 
getting will be very awkward. 

The Sentence Method. — (1) It is possible to begin with 
sentences, rather than with words or letters. This method 
is appropriately called the Sentence method. If the sen- 
tence used is short, and the child's eye-memory is known 



110 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

to be equal to the task, the sentence may be written on the 
board and read for the pupil. He must then be required 
to read in imitation of the teacher. Unless thought-getting 
paves the way this method is an outrageous strain on the 
eye-memory of the learner. The only sensible way to pre- 
pare the pupil for this task is to give him a thought 
through objects, actions, etc., then write it, read it, and 
have him imitate, as when a boy has been asked to run, 
and the class has been asked to tell what the boy is doing. 
They will say. The boy runs. Then it is time to write 
the sentence, etc. When the sentence has been taught as a 
sentence, it is analyzed into the words of which it is com- 
posed, and the words into the letters and sounds of which 
these are composed. (2) For the Sentence method it must 
be said that in the hands of a resourceful teacher, it is suf- 
ficiently apperceptive and, because thought-getting leads, 
it is both rational and interesting as an introduction to read- 
ing. Vocabulary is rapidly acquired, and, from seeing the 
teacher write the words separated from their associates in 
sentences, he learns to write while he learns to read. But 
against the method must be said that, like the Word method, 
it keeps the pupil too dependent on the teacher unless com- 
bined more or less almost from the beginning with emanci- 
pating phonic analysis and synthesis. 

The Comprehensive Method. — Miss Emma K. Gor- 
don has attempted to combine the best features of the 
phonic, word, and sentence methods. The method has 
therefore been called the " Comprehensive " or " Gordon " 
method. (1) Through conversations specially devised, etc., 
the system cleverly avoids the use of diacritical marks. 

(2) The phonic facts to be memorized are amazingly few. 

(3) Through specially devised charts and drills the system 
serves the interests of English spelling. (4) The vocab- 
ulary is carefully graded. 

The books employed divide the work into two courses 
of five months each. Three phonic charts, six equivalent 



READING 111 

charts, and forty-fonr letter squares are employed. The 
Gordon method has attracted considerable attention, and is 
certainly ingenious. The publishers are D. C. Heath and 
Company. 

The Rational, or Ward Method.— (1) The "Ward'" 
method is so called after Edward G. Ward, who prefers, 
with much reason, as we shall see, that it should be called 
the " Eational " Method. 

The Ward Words.— The " stuff " with which the Ward 
teacher works consists of words specially selected for the 
purposes. First of all, the words selected must be words 
which are the names of objects, actions, qualities, etc., 
known to the large majority of children before they come to 
school and then they must be parts of longer words so that 
the longer words may be taught by means of the shorter ones. 

Sight Work with Senteitces. — The Ward teacher 
causes his class to think a thought which can be expressed 
in a short sentence made of the words which he hopes 
to teach. To accomplish this, James or Mary is requested 
to perform some particular action, as running, or to 
assume some particular posture, etc. If, as in the case 
of pupils whose mother tongue is not English, he can not 
cause some member of the class to put into words the 
thought thus taught, as, The boy runs, he will do it for 
the class. Then, turning to the board, he will write the 
thought, and ask the pupil to read it. Other sentences 
are then added and contrasted until they can be readily 
distinguished. After a few days the work of breaking 
up sentences into the words of which they consist begins. 
Covering some words with anything convenient, as the 
hand, the pupil is asked such questions as, Who runs ? What 
does the boy do ? thus causing him by suggestion to say 
and see the uncovered word at the same moment. Addi- 
tional sentences are treated in the same way until the 83 
words are known readily by sight. Much ingenious drill, 
or repetition, is added to make the lessons taught permanent 
possessions. 



112 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

The Ward Phonograms. — Somewliere along the line, 
long before the 83 words have become perfect " sight 
words/' i.e._, words known by the pupil as a whole by sight, 
a system of emancipating pronunciation-keys, consisting of 
letters like b, d, f, 1, s, etc., of syllables like ack, ing, ight, 
and of sight words like am, at, ill, is introduced, and 
gradually mastered while the work on words through sen- 
tence building continues. These phonograms, at any rate 
most of them, are taught by writing on the board words 
which are capable of analysis into phonograms, as sing, 
readily broken up into the sounds s and mg. The parts 
of the word, like s and ing, are repeatedly uncovered and 
covered alternatingly while the teacher breaking up the 
word orally gives the pupils the respective sounds at the 
same moment. Then, when the sounds have been suffi- 
ciently disentangled from the spoken word-whole, they are 
allowed to run vocally and visibly together, as .s ing^ sing. 
This associative synthesis is called " blend." The teacher 
takes great pains to make sure that the pupil really gets 
the sounds exactly, and that they become perfect mental 
habits. Faithful repetition under the stimulus of much 
good mood, variation in arrangement, imitation, competi- 
tion, etc., is the price which the pupil must be required to 
pay. A set of card j)honograms, convenient and stimu- 
lating in connection with these drills, accompanies the Ward 
Manual for teachers. As fast as the pupil masters the 
phonograms he is required to use them in pronouncing new 
words. Here, by the aid of the teacher covering and un- 
covering the known parts of the new word to be pronounced, 
the pupil is required to sound the kno^vn parts correctly 
and then, after some repetition of the sounds in the order 
in which they belong to the word, to run them together, 
or " blend " them, thus pronouncing the new word for 
himself, very much in the same way as he is taught to 
find sight words in sentences. The success of this blend 
work will of course depend almost wholly on the resource- 
fulness of the teacher and the talent of the class. 



READING 113 

WoETii OF THE Waed Method. — (1) The Ward trans- 
fer of the pupil's spoken thought, " taking the learner where 
he is " and passing from the related known to the new, 
is absolutely apperceptive. This is also true of the analysis 
which, the learner is required to make, first of the written 
sentence to find the separate sight words wanted, and then 
of the sight words to find phonograms, and finally of the 
synthetic use of phonograms in pronouncing new words. 
(2) The purposeful selection of the Ward 83 words to be 
taught by sight is far more rational than the haphazard, 
go-lucky selection of words so common to the older Word 
method. (3) But the "brand new '^ thing in the Ward 
method is the kind of phonograms to be employed. The 
letters, syllables, and words of which the Ward phonogTams 
consist are so selected, and such is the order in which they 
are presented to the pupil, that the use of dictionary diacrit- 
ical marks is kept down to the minimum. In this respect 
the Ward method is infinitely less cumbersome than the 
Pollard method. In other words, the Ward trained pupil 
coming to a new word with pronouncing keys which con- 
sist not only of letters but also of syllables fomid in thou- 
sands of English words and of shorter words found in 
thousands of longer words, will be able to pronounce new 
words correctly in less time than the Pollard trained pupil 
with his diacritical phonograms, as in the word sing, where 
the Ward pupil needs only two keys, s and ing, while the 
Pollard pupil needs at least three keys, s i ng. The Ward 
phonograms contribute to greater fluency not only because 
the number of pronouncing keys with which the pupil must 
work is smaller than that of the Pollard method or the 
ordinary Phonic method, but also because, consisting 
partly of syllables and shorter words, they lead to a less 
analytic habit of looking at words in reading. Thus two 
of the most important ends in view in teaching reading, 
namely, fluency and the pupil's emancipation, are most effec- 
tively secured through the Ward method. The method 
8 



114 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

is also a more effective training in enunciation and articu- 
lation because the phonograms used consist of the natural 
^^ stuff '' of enunciation and articulation. In the end much 
time is gained by the Ward method, and this makes it 
possible to combine more good supplementary reading with 
the reading lessons than any other method. Besides all 
these advantages, any one fit to be a teacher can prepare 
himself more quickly to use this method than the next best 
one — ^the Pollard method. The only conspicuous defect of 
the system is its tendency to produce poor spellers because, 
as stated, it accustoms the pupil to see words with less 
analytic attention; but since spelling, as we shall see, must 
at all events be learned by spelling, the defect, if such it is, 
can readily be corrected by spelling enough to meet the 
wants of the class. The wonder is that no one lighted upon 
a system so manifestly psychological and practical long ago. 
Only the magic spell of tradition seems to account for such 
dulness. 

ECONOMIC ADAPTATIONS 

The reading lessons, like others, must be prepared and 
recited, and the habit of reading good books developed 
into love. 

Preparations for the Recitation. — The purposes of the 
recitation, as we shall see, require that both the teacher 
and the pupil make faithful preparations. 

The Teacher's Preparations. — Apart from the special 
training which the teacher of reading needs as a conse- 
quence of the psychological difficulties and the value of 
reading in an education, he must make daily preparations. 
Among other things he must keep a correct record of the 
ground covered and the victories won, set his mind upon 
new recitation purposes apperceptively, master the details 
of pronunciation, comprehension, and expression that will 
be sure to come up on the way to the ends in view, prepare 
materials and plans for special drills in expression, and 



READING 115 

take the measure of the lesson to be assigned before the 
close of the recitation. 

The Pupil's Preparations. — (1) By watching and 
imitating the teacher at the board, beginners in reading 
soon learn to write. After that they can be required to 
copy words and sentences left on the board purposely. 
Presently they can be required to construct sentences of 
their own, following the teacher's directions. After books 
have begun to be used in the recitation, apperceptive 
preparations can be required, the pupils copying gathered up 
review work placed on the board by the teacher. To redeem 
the recitation of beginners from the dead monotony so 
common in the " older '^ days, first year pupils in reading 
should seldom be allowed to take their books with them to 
their seats or homes. (2) Older pupils should be required 
to read the advance lessons, making honest efforts to under- 
stand the thought, to pronounce new words correctly by 
means of given phonograms, to practice for fluency, etc. 
Still older pupils should be required to copy the lesson, 
care being taken of capitals, punctuation, neatness, etc. 
Sometimes the pupils should be asked to write the story 
of the lesson in their own words. To correct the tendency 
of the Ward phonograms to produce poor spellers, the 
pupils must frequently be requested to select and copy 
words from pages already mastered, but always according 
to specific directions. 

The Recitation in Reading. — The purposes of the reci- 
tation in reading determine the method of procedure. 

Purposes. — The recitation in reading should cause the 
pupil to use not only his eyes and ears, but also his 
imagination, thought, memory, and heart. And these re- 
sults should be secured not only during the recitation, but 
between recitations. The recitation should furnish effective 
exercise in reading as such, but also in special enunciation, 
articulation, pronunciation, comprehension, and expression. 



116 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Dark points should be cleared up for the learner, and 
necessary directions, suggestions, etc., properly given. 

Accomplishing the Purposes. — (1) To begin with, 
the teacher's spirit should be sympathetic and encouraging, 
the lessons for beginners should consist largely of ^^ action 
stories,'' the pupil's desire to compete with his fellows 
should be wisely called into service by letting him try to 
do as well as or better than others, or by letting pupils 
a little older trap each other in connection with the spell- 
ing of the reading lesson. The resourceful teacher will 
find other stimuli. (2) To cause reading classes to attack 
the lesson with all their mental faculties, especially with 
thought and imagination, the teacher must ask appropriate 
and pointed questions, and by and by require the pupils 
to tell the story of the lesson. (3) Difficulties in reading 
tasks should be illustrated skillfully, explained inspiringly, 
and then put to the test. 

Conveniences. — (1) Every school room should be sup- 
plied Avith suitable supplementary readers. Books on 
geography, travels, biography, history, nature, literature, 
etc., may be had in almost any variety. At appropriate 
times it should be required of pupils to read at sight, or 
after sight, some paragraph or page that ranks in difficulty 
with that of his lessons. This requirement being a variation 
from the usual text, will stimulate interest, enlarge thought, 
and produce the habit of reading outside of school hours. 
(2) The blackboard is more interesting to the learner than 
the chart and books, because it makes movements the object 
of attention. It is with the blackboard that the teacher can 
best show the children how to write sentences, words, and 
letters. Indeed, the pupil that watches his teacher write 
words and letters day after day, and then imitates them 
between recitations, will learn to write, as stated elsewhere, 
without much additional instruction. (3) During the 
first months it is better to use script than print. The use 
of script saves time, helps the pupil learn to write, and 



READING 117 

is easier on the pupil's nerves and hand than printing the 
work to be done. When the time conies to put a printed 
book into the hands of the child, the transfer from script to 
print can be accomplished in a very few recitations by 
writing words in both forms under each other letter for 
letter and calling attention to the likenesses. (4) Capital 
letters should be taught only as fast as needed, and by 
writing them side by side, or under, the corresponding 
small letters, i.e,, by association. Very little explanation 
will be needed. 

Special Tasks. — Among the somewhat special tasks of 
the reading teacher are the teaching of alphabetic names, 
the correction of lisping, stammering, and stuttering, and 
the fostering of the reading habit through school libraries. 

Alphabetic Xames. — (1) At first, and for months, the 
name of a letter like a^ s^ x, etc., is not only not needed in 
pronouncing, but really hinders the pupil by protruding 
itself into the child's mind just when the sound is more 
important. Presently, however, the pupil must be taught 
the alphabetic names to encourage the analytic habit in 
spelling words that have silent letters, doubles, equivalents, 
etc., and to save time in spelling, as any one can prove for 
himself with a long word by spelling it first by sounding 
the letters and then by naming them. (2) In due time, 
as a convenience in consulting dictionaries, cyclopedias, 
etc., the alphabetic names should be taught in right order, 
both backward and forward. (3) The best way to learn 
the names of the letters is by suggestive association with 
the corresponding sounds. In attempting to commit the 
conventional order of the letter names persevering repetition 
is the only hope of success. Beginning with a few letters, 
new ones should be added and the amended series repeated, 
and so on. It may be done in special recitations or in 
connection with exercises in reading. 

LispiiTG. — (1) Among the familiar causes of lisping are 
association with some one who lisps, childish affectation. 



118 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

and a tongue that is a little too long. (2) The remedies 
in the first and second cases are the removal of the causes. 
When the defect is in the tongue the pupil must be made 
to realize the defect, and to control his speech constantly 
until such control becomes automatic. Excitement by nag- 
ging or abuse is simply out of place. 

Stammeeing and Stuttering. — (1) Stammering is 
usually caused by impulsive hurry. The pupil should be 
required to control himself in order to keep the fault from 
becoming a habit. (2) Stuttering is a nervous inhibition 
of speech, and as such can often be corrected by improving 
the general health of the pupil. The teacher can usually 
keep the pupil from stuttering by putting him at ease in 
every v^ay, and when the pupil can not proceed the teacher 
can usually help him by starting the sentence from the 
beginning. It is of great importance to keep the pupil 
from being made conspicuous or the object of ridicule. 

Elocutionary Drills. — It is not the function of the 
public schools to develop specialists in expression, but that 
fluency v^hich consists of rapid recognition, correct and 
rapid articulation, freedom from hesitation in pronuncia- 
tion, together v^ith skill in pitch, time, tone, force, and 
emphasis, is a very desirable attainment in any education. 
Good teaching will make every recitation count for some- 
thing, but occasional special exercises are profitable. Drill 
on difficult phonetic combinations, as, She sells sea shells, 
Theophilus Thistle in sifting, etc., Eound the rough and 
rugged etc., are very good. The rate should be slow to 
begin with, and increase to great speed, but never at the 
expense of clearly defined enunciation and articulation. 

School Libraries. — Before the boys and girls leave the 
common school they should acquire love for good books and 
the habit of reading such books. The ordinary school does 
not produce this result because the school library is want- 
ing. In order to cultivate appreciation for good books, 
and to foster the habit of reading such books, a suitable 



READING 119 

collection of books should belong to every school. To 
intensify personal interest, the pupils themselves, directed 
of course by the teacher, should have part in the work of 
securing the school library. If possible the school-room 
should also be supplied with a safe periodical and 
newspaper. 

Value of Reading 

So great is the natural difference between reading and 
real perception that the former can never be a perfect 
substitute for the latter. And yet for many practical pur- 
poses the " second hand " perceptions of reading are very 
satisfactory substitutions for real perception. For all the 
other mental faculties reading can be made a most effective 
exercise. When training in reading has made books tools 
for all the mental faculties, it emancipates the learner from 
the teacher in his studies; it thus makes it possible for 
the teacher to employ the learner profitably between reci- 
tations — a most important consideration, seeing that in 
any ordinary school there must be times when the teacher 
simply can not work with the pupil; it makes it possible 
for the boys and girls to carry on their education after 
their school days must end; and in this process of post- 
graduate education they may, especially if they have access 
to a good home or public library, experience mentally, at 
least in a measure, all that the masters in science, literature, 
history, art, philosophy, and theology, have experienced. 
In other words, reading opens the door to all the centuries, 
and makes it possible for a good reader to become the 
veritable " heir of all the ages.'' Then, too, the expressive 
reader, like Leland Powers in public, and hosts of our 
friends in society and home life, can help to make the 
world very happy. If these things are true (and how can 
it be otherwise ?) no training of teachers in reading can 
be too good for our children, and no school that allows its 
pupils to neglect reading can be called a good school. 



120 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 



History of Reading 

Reading has always been the fundamental school study 
in all the civilized nations, excepting a few like ancient 
Persia and Sparta where the martial interests overshadowed 
purely intellectual pursuits. 

The methods of teaching reading have changed for the 
better in startling proportion with psychological discov- 
eries. (1) When the sounds of languages began to be 
represented it was done by pictures of objects, actions, etc., 
whose names suggested the sounds to be represented, as 
gimmel, meaning camel, was used to stand for the sound of 
hard g. In this way the ABC method naturally became 
the first method of teaching reading, and even now it has 
not yielded absolutely to newer methods. (2) The " Word 
method " was first used by Jacotot, a French Professor in 
Belgium (see "History of Education"). The most 
prominent early advocate of the method in America was 
Professor Webb, after whom it was called the Webb 
method for some time. In England it is called the " Look 
and Say '' method, or the method of " Beading without 
Spelling." It led to an effective combination known as 
the " Word and Phonic " method, formerly very popular 
and still used. The " Gordon " and other methods are 
later adaptations. (3) The " Pollard " method came about 
fifteen years ago, and the " Ward " method less than ten 
years ago. Whether the apparently perfect Ward method 
can be improved remains to be seen. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. A Phonetic Alphabet. Richards, N. E. A. Report, 1859. 

2. Scientific Alphabet. Funk and Wagnalls. 

3. The School and the Library. Morgan, N. E. A. Report, 1887. 

4. What to Read, First Year High School. American Education, 
December, 1907. 



CHAPTER III 
WRITING 

Nature 

As stated in the chapter on Reading, thought can be 
expressed in such sight-symbols as words, figures, etc. 
♦*" Writing " is the linear construction of vjords, figures, etc, 
used as sight-symbols in the expression of thought. 

The Stuff of Writing 

The stuff with which the pedagogy of writing has to deal 
consists of linear constructions, together with the bodily 
positions and movements by means of which these linear 
constructions are accomplished. 

Letters. — The letters, figures, etc., of writing are the 
linear representations of elementary sounds in language. 
Small letters are employed in the body of words, while 
capitals denote distinctions, as in proper names or head 
lines. As to inclination letters may be uniformly vertical, 
or slanting forward to the right, or slanting backward. In 
Aryan languages, the English among them, the succession 
of letters is from left to right across a surface. 

Linear Elements. — Script letters are combinations of 
straight lines, angles, and curves. ( 1 ) The linear elements 
of the various writing systems are comparatively few. 
Spencer, for example, employs only seven linear elements, 
or " principles " as they are sometimes called. They are the 
straight line / , the left curve / , the right curve j , the 
loop / , the capital stem c/, the direct oval , and the re- 
versed oval ' The height, width, and parts of every letter 
are definite quantities according to the system adopted. (2) 
In Spencer's slanting system the " down stroke " starting 
one space above the writing line meets it at an angle of 52 

121 



122 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

degrees, while in the vertical system the corresponding angle 
is of course 90 degrees. The down stroke determines the 
general character of letters as to connective curves, etc. 
In Spencer's system the left curve leaves the writing line 
at an angle of 30 degrees and with a short turn meets the 
do^ai stroke one space high, while the right curve, leaving 
the writing line at the same angle, meets the down stroke 
in a thin acute angle. In a vertical letter the angle of 
departure is larger than 30 degrees for the upward curves, 
and the connecting loops fuller. In both vertical and the 
slanting systems, the loop, the capital stem, and both ovals 
are three spaces high. The loop, starting from the writing 
line, consists of a right curve and a down stroke. The 
capital stem, starting from above, consists of a sweeping 
compound curve that ends one space high. The direct oval, 
starting above, consists of a left curve, a right curve, and 
a final shorter right curve. The inverted oval, starting 
from the Avriting line, consists of a left and a right curve 
sliding into a down stroke. In Tecent systems initial 
strokes start at some distance from the writing line and 
final strokes often end abruptly. Both letters and figures 
may be perfected by shading, gratuitous and ornamental 
curves, etc. A clear conception of these linear elements of 
writing, kept well to the front, is one of the essentials in 
the pedagogy of writing, as we shall see. 

Writing Ideals. — Writing is a mode of expressing 
thought. The letters employed as a means should evidently 
be legible, accurate, and beautiful, the time consumed in 
the writing process as brief as circumstances demand, while 
the positions and movements involved in the writing process 
should be as healthful as possible. 

HYaiENic Petifectioist. — The interests of physical cul- 
ture, etc., require that the eye of the writer should not be 
strained by unequal tension of muscles possibly due to 
incorrect bodily positions and movements; that the lungs 
and other vital portions should not be crowded by leaning 



WRITING 123 

against forward supports; that the mtiscles of the back 
should not be hurt or the spine distorted by strained posi- 
tions or lack of relief; and that ugliness of hand, imper- 
fections of dexterity, or especially ^' writer's cramp '' should 
not be made likely through defects in the pen itself or in 
penholding. 

Legibility. — A letter is legible when it can easily be 
read. The interests of the reader require that writing 
should be legible. Considering the importance of conveni- 
ence, comfort, and safety, a scrawl is as much of an insult 
to the eye of a reader as indistinctness of enunciation is to 
the ear of a hearer. 

AccuEACY. — A letter is accurately written when it is 
made to consist of all its necessary linear elements and 
when the writer began, continued, and ended as he should. 
Accuracy is requisite to perfection. As such, the interests 
of culture require that letters should be accurately written. 
Perfection as the limit to possibility is the only proper 
aim in the attainment of anything. 

Beauty. — By physical beauty is meant that perfection 
which can be approximated by sensible forms of expression. 
Accuracy is only one requisite of physical beauty. In order 
to be beautiful, accuracy must be ornamented, as in writing 
it is done through curves, shading, etc. So delicate is the 
sense of beauty that it should never be sacrificed except to 
higher ends like usefulness, truth, or goodness. Of the 
ancient Greeks it was said that " ugliness gave them pain." 

Rapidity. — By rapidity in writing is meant shortness 
of time required in movements. The interests of business, 
together with economy of labor, require that such rapidity 
should be an easy possibility for very many writers. Earn- 
ing power in business employments, and coupled with it 
many possibilities, depend very much on speed in writing. 

Position of the Body in Writing. — While it is possible, 
of course, to sit or to stand in writing, and to face either 
squarely forward, leftward, or rightward in both sitting and 



124 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

standing, the purposes in hand, together with the conveni- 
ences by means of which these purposes are to be effected, 
and the possible results to the body, etc., determine which 
of the possible positions should be assumed by writers. 

Sitting in Weiting. — When writing at a desk or table 
the hygienic requirements to which attention was called 
a moment ago are best served by facing squarely forward. 
The muscles of the eye, those of the back, and others in- 
volved in writing, are arranged in pairs, as anatomy shows. 
In the use of muscles, equal tension or muscle balance, as 
physiology shows, is of the utmost importance to the muscles 
themselves and of special importance to the nerves employed. 
The " front position," as it has been called, generally assures 
this much-wanted muscle-balance. And yet even this front 
position becomes fatiguing when too long continued. 
Therefore, both to prevent fatigue and as a relief from 
fatigue, side positions must frequently be substituted for 
the front position. [N'evertheless, for all practical purposes, 
the front position should be the rule. 

Standing in Weiting. — In school work, where the 
blackboard figures so prominently, as well as in counting 
houses, the standing position not only often serves as relief 
from the sitting position, but also serves many other impor- 
tant ends. While the teacher is busy with part of a class 
in oral recitation, others can be profitably sent to the board. 
As a rule, however, the writer at the board should not take 
the " front position," but the " left side position." In that 
event both the teacher and the class can see just what 
the writer may be writing. Then, too, the left side-position 
offers free swing to the arm in writing, thus making the 
work less fatiguing, and in the larger movements of the 
capital stem and both ovals it is the only proper attitude. 

Movements in Writing. — The possible movements in 
writing are the movements of the fingers, the wrist, the 
forearm, and the whole arm. On which of these move- 
ments stress must be laid in teaching writing, and when, 



WRITING 125 

depends upon the nature of the movements themselves in 
connection with the teacher's purposes. As the condition 
of movements in writing, pen-holding must be considered 
first of all. 

Pen-holdin-g. — (1) To prevent strain of the nerves all 
the way from the fingers to the shoulder, and thus to prevent 
fatigue or possibly writer's cramp, the pen-holder should 
be five or six inches long, in which event it can be easily 
steadied against the hand near the end knuckle of the 
forefinger and made to point toward the shoulder. How- 
ever, to secure these results effectively the arm dare not be 
drawn together too much, as it will be if the writer draws 
the paper too close to himself or leans forward toward the 
hand too far. (2) To get the pen, or pencil, thoroughly 
under control of the forefinger and thumb, it should be 
seized about an inch from the writing point, and cross the 
second finger on the corner of the nail. (3) To prevent 
the likelihood of spluttering the ink over the paper or copy- 
book, and also to protect the pen-points, they should be made 
to meet the paper squarely. (4) In operations where deli- 
cate skill is indispensable the world is almost wholly right- 
handed. Perhaps right-handedness is sensorially natural, 
perhaps it is the result of acquired hereditary momentum 
beginning with personal inauguration or even by accident. 
To know certainly, we should have to make inquiry into 
present tribal customs and the childhood of the race. Con- 
comitant with this almost universal right-handedness in 
skilled labor and fine arts is right-handedness in writing. 
To be the exception in a writing exercise, as in life's united 
actions, is not only awkwardly inconvenient but awkwardly 
conspicuous. 

Left-handedness. — To grow up left-handed in school is 
not only serious to nervous pupils, and decidedly awkward 
in those school exercises where space and imitative inspira- 
tion call for united action in the writers, but it tends to 
make the pupil largely left-handed in those life occupations 



126 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

where space and imitative inspiration call for united action. 
Accordingly, unless forbidden by weightier considerations, 
right-handedness should be substituted for left-handedness 
in education. In opposition to this conclusion it is some- 
times alleged that left-handedness is cranially natural in 
at least some instances and that interference with such in- 
dividuality may be injurious. This assumption — for it 
lacks proof — strangely overlooks one of the best attested 
facts of life, namely, the substitution of one for the other 
of a pair of nerve tracts in the effort of the brain to accom- 
modate itself to new conditions. And nowhere is this 
power more conspicuous than in hands and feet in case 
of temporary or permanent injury to one of the pair. 'Nov 
do statistics show that personal efficiency or sanity are in 
any way injured by such reorganization of brain tracts. 
The only other serious question of pedagogy is whether 
it is really advisable to substitute one habit for another 
which amounts to hereditary momentum. To this biologi- 
cal question it is sufficient to reply that we never hesitate 
to interfere witli hereditary, or congenital drunkenness, 
viciousness, etc. Here interference is confessedly the only 
hope of education. In short, the only thing of which 
the teacher must be sure is that the habit which is to be 
substituted is really a better habit and that it is both pos- 
sible and practical to make the substitution. In beginners, 
as the physiology of habit shows, it is certainly possible to 
substitute one habit, like left-handedness, for another, and, 
in harmony with the reasons stated, the substitution should 
be unhesitatingly undertaken. Before undertaking the sub- 
stitution with older pupils, the teacher should be reasonably 
certain of two things, first that the cooperation of pupil and 
teacher will not be seriously interrupted before the better 
habit can be completely established, since otherwise the 
pupil might not learn to write well with either hand, and 
second, that the pupil understands the advantages to be 
gained and will freely persevere until he succeeds. Under- 



WRITING 127 

taken under these conditions, the triumph of the pupil over 
a bad habit is not simply praiseworthy but full of promise 
morally. Even from the practical side, the attempt is cer- 
tainly important for those who are to teach writing, since 
most of their pupils are right-handed ; and left-handed illus- 
tration of pen-holding and writing movements for these 
pupils is very ineffective. 

Finger Movements. — The action of the first and sec- 
ond fingers and the thumb, is termed the " Finger Move- 
ment " ; it is used chiefiy in upward and downward strokes. 

FoKEAKM Movement. — " The Forearm Movement con- 
sists in the action of the forearm upon its muscular rest 
near the elbow, the hand gliding on the nails of the 
third and fourth fingers. It may be employed in making 
strokes in any direction, but is especially adapted to carry- 
ing the pen rightward and leftward across the paper, and 
is most efficient in combination with the finger movement." 

Combined Movement. — " The Combined Movement 
consists in the united action of the forearm, hand, and fin- 
gers, the forearm acting on its muscular rest as a centre, 
and sliding the hand on the nails of the third and fourth 
fingers, while the first and second fingers and thumb extend 
and contract in forming upward and downward strokes. 
This movement answers the requirements of business better 
than any other; it combines the free untiring sweep of the 
forearm with the delicate shaping powers of the fingers, 
securing ease and accuracy." 

Whole-aem Movement. — " The Whole-arm Movement 
consists in the use of the whole arm from the shoulder, 
the elbow being raised slightly from the desk, and the hand 
sliding on the nails of the third and fourth fingers." This 
movement is mainly used for striking large capitals. Its 
practice is highly beneficial, as it brings into free action 
all the muscles from shoulder to fingers. 

Styles of Writing. — The particular end in view deter- 
mines not only upon which writing movement the stress 



128 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

must be put for the time being, but also the style of letters. 
(1) Vertical writing is good for the health because the re- 
quired front position is natural and easy, i.e.j the back must 
be straight and square and both eyes must be exercised 
equally. But by properly placing the copy-books, etc., the 
same results can be secured in slanting writing. (2) It 
has been attempted to show by rapidly moving rows of 
strokes right and left in front of the eye, that slanting 
writing produces interference of light-rays, and that this 
injures the legibility; but this rapid moving does not really 
take place in writing, and is therefore not an argument 
against slanting penmanship. (3) Vertical writing is more 
rapid, because there is less distance for the pen to travel 
in making vertical strokes than in making slanting strokes 
of the same height. This, however, is true only for those 
who have not become habituated to the slanting style. For 
persons who have firmly acquired the slanting habit the 
vertical effort will be harder and slower for a long time. 
In view of this fact only beginners, as a rule, should be 
taught vertical writing if it is to be taught at all. Where 
vertical writing has been forced upon persons who grew up 
in the slanting style, it has almost invariably run by reaction 
into a " back hand ''style, than which there could be nothing 
worse for both writer and reader. The complaint of busi- 
ness houses that clerks who had acquired the vertical 
habit after the slanting habit write slower than clerks 
who write only slant, and that the objectionable " back 
hand " is usually developed, has led cities who had intro- 
duced vertical writing wholesale to abandon it. In such 
cases the blame of course must be put not upon vertical 
writing as such, but upon the insanity of forcing it upon 
the firmly formed slant habit of the higher grades. (4) 
Vertical writing is said to be easier to teach and learn, 
because the positions of the body, hands, and eyes are per- 
fectly natural to the child, and consequently do not have 
to be painfully inculcated. Statistics, it is said, show that 



WRITING 129 

children have better success in the vertical efforts, and that 
this success is a constant stimulus. 

Against tlie use of vertical writing in the public schools 
the following arguments must be brought: (1) Vertical 
writing reduces to dead uniformity the expressive individ- 
uality of which the free poise of slant is capable. (2) The 
poise of the classical slant is as irresistibly charming as 
the wave in the field of golden grain. (3) " Shorthand" 
and " typewriting " have largely supplanted ordinary writ- 
ing as a useful art. This fact weakens the only arguments 
in favor of vertical writing which deserved serious consid- 
eration, and strengthens all the arguments in favor of slant- 
ing writing as a fine art and as an effective expression of 
individuality. 

Courses in Writing 

Genetic adjustment, coupled with culture ideals and 
necessity, should determine the courses into which the stuff 
of writing may be divided. 

Course for Beginners. — (1) The average child, as sta- 
tistics show, cares less for writing than for drawing. The 
teacher must depend almost wholly on ^^ borrowed interests/' 
such as story-telling with the pencil, ^' imitation of custom, 
excellence in competition, and the like." (2) The course 
for beginners should therefore include such word-writing 
and letter-writing lessons as can be easily coupled with first 
lessons in reading. Large letters, legibility, and hygienic 
propriety should be the only definite aims. 

Intermediate Course. — (1) Although linear analysis 
and synthesis have no charms for concrete-minded child- 
hood, they can be made attractive to the boys and girls 
of the grammar grades. This is also the period of life in 
which accuracy is important in culture, and when sufficient 
skill in writing should be acquired for the ordinary business 
of the school and life. (2) The course should accordingly 
combine theory with practice. Accuracy and rapidity as 
9 



130 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

well as beauty should be coupled with legibility and health 
as aims. The larger movements so necessary in the course 
for beginners should gave way to convention. In linear 
analysis and synthesis the claims of apperception should be 
recog-nized at least in the rough. 

Higher Courses in Writing. — (1) The claims of indi- 
viduality and vocation should rule in mapping out the 
higher ^^T-iting courses. (2) Ornamental penmanship, 
business forms, and the like may be taken up accordingly. 

TEACHING WRITING 

Both the learner and the lesson must be taken into 
account in deciding upon methods. 

Preparation. — (1) In addition to the special training 
which the writing teacher may have, he needs a definite 
aim for the daily writing period, a working-plan, plenty of 
practice, and such material conveniences as blackboard, 
slates, paper, etc. (2) As a rule the only preparations to 
be required of writing classes are cessation from other 
work, preparation of board or desk for work, supply of 
needed materials, attention to directions. 

Recitation in Writing. — As in other studies, writing 
recitations are of great importance, and the stuff of the 
lesson determines its special features. 

Importance of Recitations. — In any good school the 
cultural interests of the curriculum are best served by com- 
bining writing with the preparation and the recitation of 
lessons; but, being subordinate to other interests, such 
writing fails to call the pupil's attention to writing as writ- 
ing. As a writing exercise such writing is therefore not 
specialized effort, and tends to be slip-shod as to accuracy 
and other perfections. Inasmuch as such writing cannot 
as a rule be accompanied by special instruction on writing 
as writing, the writer is likely to fall into bad writing 
habits. 



WRITING 131 

Eegiitners iisr Writing. — (1) As a rule the pupil should 
learn to write while he learns to read. If, as urged, the 
first lessons in reading are taught by writing the words to 
be learned on the board, the attention which the pupil gives 
to the writing of the w^ords and without which the pupil 
could not learn to distinguish written words from each other, 
will impress the writing of the word so vividly upon the 
mind of the reading pupil that, usually, he can write by 
imitation what the teacher writes often. (2) In this word- 
imitation the attention of the pupil is, however, not analytic 
enough to emphasize the distinguishing features of the sepa- 
rate letters, as b, r, w, etc. The necessary analysis can be 
introduced by calling attention to the defective letter and 
writing it large and its linear parts separate, as 
No technical description should accompany such jl / 
analytic presentation of separate letters. Enough ^ 
practice will of course make the learner perfect. And thus 
perfected the letter will become the writing rule. (3) The 
only perfections on which the teacher should lay stress in 
these beginnings are the pupil's health and the legibility of 
letters. (4) To satisfy the earlier ripening of power over 
large muscles the writing pupil should be required to use 
the blackboard at first. The ruled slate should follow^ and 
then paper with pencil. When enough hand-control has 
been acquired pen and ink should be substituted for the 
pencil. By and by, to develop freedom of motion and to 
relieve the monotony of things, movement drills on the board 
and paper should be given. The detailed directions are 
usually found in copy-books. 

Copy-book Classes. — The " copy-book " with its apper- 
ceptive succession of correct settings came to take the place 
of the older makeshift copy-books in which neither the suc- 
cession of tasks nor the letters of words set were correct. 
The purpose of the ready-made copy-books is to perfect prac- 
tice in writing by combining with it a preparatory analysis 
of the " set words " into their linear elments. Before such 



133 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

a recitation begins, the pupils of the class should be seated 
" front position " at the writing desks with pen, ink, paper, 
and copy-book ready for work. (1) Instead of permitting 
each pupil of the class to write the page without instruc- 
tion, and therefore without a knowledge of the purpose of 
the page, the teacher analyzes and explains the new words 
of the page, the pupils answering such questions as the 
teacher may combine with his writing illustrations. When 
this preparatory analysis and instruction are omitted the 
pupil, ignorant of the purpose of the page, usually writes 
the next line worse than the one before as he passes down 
the page and farther from the " copy," and reaches the last 
word with this impression uppermost on his mind, that he 
has written another page. ISTothing could be a worse waste 
of paper, time, and energy. (2) When the teacher has 
consumed, let us say five minutes in these preparations 
of the pupil's "head," he prepares the pupil's hand for 
beauty-work in the copy-book by requiring him to practise 
the analyzed and illustrated letter combinations on paper 
specially kept for the purpose. Five minutes of such 
preparatory practice should be very effective. (3) Assum- 
ing that the preparatory practice has made perfect hand- 
control likely, the class is finally requested to write the 
page, keeping the purpose of the page in mind, and trying 
hard to write each line more completely like the " copy." 
(4) If thirty minutes are to be devoted to three copy- 
book classes, the teacher beginning with the highest class, 
this class will have twenty minutes for beauty-work, the 
next class fifteen and the last ten. (5) After instructing 
each class five minutes, the teacher will have fifteen minutes 
left to use in keeping the class in the best possible writing 
mood. To secure this hand-inspiring mood the teacher 
must combine encouraging words with his inspections of 
copy-work. (6) The free-arm movement exercises so neces- 
sary for perfection in writing should of course be added 
every now and then, the board being the best writing sur- 



WRITING 133 

face for such work. (7) If time permits and the circum- 
stances warrant it, ornamental penmanship may be 
attempted by the most advanced pupils of the school. 

Value of Writing 

In the hands of a trained teacher writing becomes a 
most effective educational means. 

Culture. — Writing lessons afford very excellent oppor- 
tunities for exercise in self-control, attention, accuracy, and 
artistic finish. There are so many combinations of body 
and mind both in school and life like the writing combina- 
tions that excellencies acquired in writing-lessons are a 
promise of similar excellency in all similar combinations of 
body and mind. The radius within which the similarity 
may be expected is as wide as the possibilities of motor- 
expression. 

Life. — The effectiveness of writing-lessons as a qualita- 
tive training in motor-expression is recognized by most of 
us though the above explanation may not have occurred 
to us. The widely prevailing belief that, except in case of 
deliberate acting, most persons photograph their ordinary 
character in their handwriting, is therefore well founded. 
(1) Employers looking for self-poise, energy, taste, and 
manliness in candidates for employment often detect these 
qualities, or the opposites, in the letters of such applicants, 
and decide accordingly. School directors, for example, 
may not themselves be able to write well, but many of them 
know how important it is that the teacher of their children 
should not only write a good hand, but that he should 
also have the qualities of character which such efficiency 
somehow seems to guarantee. (2) What is true of business 
intercourse is equally true of written social intercourse. 
We think better of our correspondents when they write a 
legible and artistic hand. This preference seems to rest on 
the belief, though it may never have been put into so 
many words, that our friends are likely to resemble their 



134 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

writing in other respects and in their relations to us. 
Criminal justice has often been able to narrow the search 
for unknown fugitives from justice by expert opinion on 
handwriting. 

Training of Teachers. — It is obviously the duty of the 
common school to cultivate penmanship both for its disci- 
plinary and its practical worth. Teachers have no moral 
right to neglect either their own handwriting or that of 
their pupils. The consequences of such neglect are too 
difficult to correct, and too far-reaching in final effect. It 
is requisite, therefore, that teachers understand (1) the 
theory of penmanship, and (2) the theory of teaching pen- 
manship. In addition to such understanding, it is neces- 
sary that teachers have artistic ability in penmanship. In- 
deed, a knowledge of higher courses in penmanship, and 
training in each of these courses, so far as possible, develops 
an appreciation for the art of penmanship, and leads to an 
ability in it that fits teachers to work from better stand- 
points and to much better advantage. Tlie Normal Schools 
in particular OAve it to the public schools to send out teachers 
that are able to write and to teach writing. 

History of Writing 

The art of expressing thoughts by means of conven- 
tionalized pictures is as old as civilization. Alphabetic 
writing began with the Phoenicians. All the European na- 
tions beginning with the Greeks and Romans wove this art 
intimately into the processes of education. Even now when 
shorthand and typewriting have so largely superseded its 
utilitarian applications, it continues to be inseparably bound 
up with the processes of school education. 

Styles of Writing. — The earliest writing style was the 
vertical letter from which the present print-forms have 
been developed. " It was not until the beginning of the 
sixteenth century that the sloping or Italian style was in- 
vented bv Aldus Manutius of Venice. It soon became a 



WRITING 135 

fashionable fad and spread rapidly over all Europe. Prob- 
ably the best reason for this was that writing in those days 
was to a great extent in the hands of professional scribes, 
and, as the slanting style was peculiarly favorable to the 
development of the new art of flourishing, it soon supplanted 
the old vertical mode." " In the course of time, when edu- 
cation became the common possession of all, slanting writ- 
ing retained its supremacy unchallenged. No attempts 
were made to return to vertical penmanship until a few 
years ago, when an investigation of the causes of curvature 
of the spine and imperfect vision so common in school 
children was instituted in Germany, with the result that 
eminent medical authorities attributed the greater part of 
the evil to the position of the body and eyes necessary in 
writing a slanting hand. At about the same time teachers 
began to awake to the fact that the writing of their schools 
was anything but satisfactory. AVith the assurance from 
the medical profession that slanting penmanship produces 
deformity and imperfect vision, and from educational ex- 
perts that vertical penmanship is far superior to sloping,'^ 
it seemed certain for a while that vertical writing would 
be the writing of the future. It was extensively introduced 
on the Continent and in England, and only recently aroused 
absorbing interest in America. The later statistics show 
that the evils attributed to sloping writing were largely 
imaginary and that vertical writing lacks individuality. 
The necessarily intimate correlation of writing with the 
processes of school education considered in connection with 
the commercial depreciation of writing, requires tliat writ- 
ing should be taught rather as a fine art than a useful art, 
and that as a consequence, slanting writing with its almost 
boundless capacity for beauty and expressive individuality, 
should be preferred to vertical writing. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Hand Writing and How to Teach It. Gordon. 

2. Theory and Art of Penmanship. Crosby and Nichols. 



CHAPTER IV 

SPELLING 

Nature 

The system of sight symbols, or letters, used to represent 
the elementary sounds of a language is called the " Alpha- 
bet " of the language. 

Orthography. — The conventional representation of a 
spoken word by means of letters is called Orthography, 
from the Greek words dpdS^^ correct, and ypdcpo), I write. 

Spelling. — The process of naming or writing in correct 
succession the letters used to represent the sounds of a 
spoken word is termed Spelling. 

The Stuff of Spelling 

The determining " stuff '' in the spelling process is the 
alphabetic structure of a word. 

Alphabetic Structure of English Words. — While there 
are about forty elementary sounds in the English language, 
the English alphabet consists of only twenty-six letters. 

Arbitrary Orthography. — As a result, some of the 
letters must be used to represent more than one sound. 
This is particularly true of the vowel letters ; of g, s, and x; 
and of combinations like th, etc. For reasons explained in 
the history of the English language, some of the sounds of 
the language are represented by more than one letter or by 
a combination of letters, like gh, for /; a number of com- 
binations like eigli, ougli, etc., sometimes represent one 
sound and sometimes another; and in various combinations 
letters have become superfluous or silent. In short, English 
orthography is largely arbitrary. 

Rules of Spelling. — Distressing as English orthog- 
raphy may be, it is comforting to find that the combina- 
136 



SPELLING 137 

tions to be made most frequently are controlled bj very- 
simple rules. 

1. Final e is usually dropped before another vowel, and 
retained before a consonant, as in skate, skating, and state, 
statement. Some exceptions are peace, peaceable; judge, 
judgment. 

2. After a consonant, final y usually becomes i before a 
suffix not beginning with i, and remains y after a vowel, as 
in lady, ladies, and chimney, chimneys. 

3. A final consonant after a single accented vowel is 
usually doubled before a vowel, as in control, controlling; 
prefer, preferred. 

4. A final consonant after more than one vowel is 
usually not doubled before another vowel, as in repeat, re- 
peating, and reveal, revealed. 

5. A final consonant after a single unaccented vowel is 
usually not doubled before another vowel, as in cancel, can- 
celing, caper, capered. 

6. In monosyllables final / and I are usually doubled 
after single vowels, as in staff, ball, etc. 

7. In Avords like conceive and beliefs c is usually fol- 
lowed by ei, and other letters of the alphabet by ie^ as in 
receive and retrieve. 

8. Words relating to matter end in ceous, and others in 
clous, as in cretaceous, ferocious. 

Object of Spelling. — Spelling is taught almost wholly 
in the interest of the writing process. It is through spell- 
ing that the alphabetic structure of words becomes a mental 
habit, thus saving much valuable time in the art of writing 
our thoughts. 

The Psychology of Spelling. — There are two things 
which complicate the committing of the alphabetic structure 
of English words very much. The first complicating ele- 
ment is the arbitrary character of English words ; the second 
is the possibility of interference or confusion of impressions. 

Observation. — (1) The arbitrary character of English 



138 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

words makes tlie committing process very mechanical, i.e., 
tlie memory must work without the strong support of reason. 
While this is a real difficulty, it is not really serious as 
compared with telegraphy, shorthand, etc. The really 
serious thing in learning to spell is the possibility of inter- 
ference or confusion of impressions. Such interference 
or confusion of impressions occurs when the senses are 
defective, when attention is weak, when the word to be 
committed is not easily distinguished from another word, 
when the mind is allowed to dwell on the incorrect instead 
of the correct alphabetic structure of the word, when the 
repetition is insufficient, etc. It is therefore important, as 
the tests of specialists clearly show, that the senses of the 
learner should be well guarded, that his attention should be 
perfected, that correct impressions should be often repeated, 
that confusing homonyms, confusing similarities, confusing 
simplifications, and confusing false spelling, should be 
scrupulously avoided in spelling-lists. 

iNDUCTioiir. — The habit of attention can be cultivated 
and the sense of certainty promoted by teaching those rules 
of spelling which control frequently necessary combinations. 
Reason is thus compelled to support memory and to save 
it from slavery. 

Deduction. — The sense of certainty can, however, be 
developed only by abundant use of the rules of spelling. 
The somewhat limited sphere to which the rules of spelling 
apply makes the prevention of confusion in committing 
words the one supreme consideration. If this point is kept 
securely in mind, the pedagogy of spelling loses its terrors. 

TEACHING SPELLING 

The alphabetic character of the words to be spelled and 
the psychophysical character of the committing process 
determine the sequence and character of assignments, the 
special features of methods to be employed, etc. 



SPELLING 139 

Assignments. — While tlie sequence of assignments in 
spelling, as in other studies, should be apperceptive, the 
assignments themselves should be determined both by the 
pupil's necessity and the teacher's resources. 

Apperception. — English orthography, as the history of 
the language shows, is very largely the result of derivation 
and inflection. The arbitrariness of English orthography 
is confined almost exclusively to the Anglo-Saxon stock of 
words. The foreign admixture of arbitrary words is not 
serious. A very large number of English words consist of 
a comparatively small stock of syllables always spelled the 
same way, as fer, ing, ed, ment^ sion, etc. Any one who 
has learned to spell the words which can be apperceptively 
composed of the Ward phonograms is master of a very large 
working vocabulary. Spelling lists should also consist of 
word collections so arranged as to reveal those rules of 
spelling which control the frequently necessary combina- 
tions of English spelling. 

Course for Beginners. — (1) So far as is consistent with 
the above requirements of apperception, those words which 
pupils meet in reading and need in the work of the grade 
to which they belong are the only words that should be 
spelled the first three or four years of school life. (2) 
After that, and before the daily program becomes crowded, 
the words which the pupil will shortly need in the higher 
grades up through the high school, etc., should be grad- 
ually mastered. Unless this work is largely done before the 
high school is reached, the necessity of conquering pages of 
thought will make it quite impossible for students to 
attend sufficiently to spelling. In the attempt to crowd the 
special recitation in spelling out of the weekly program, 
or shortening the time devoted to the special recitation too 
much, the school world has lately been guilty of neglecting 
spelling, and is suffering the punishment that is due to the 
guilty. 



140 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

The Spelling Book Course. — To banish the " spelling 
book '' from the school room just because it has been abused 
is certainly inconsistent with its possibilities. (1) Written 
by the specialist, the spelling book becomes the graded col- 
lection of words which the course of studies makes neces- 
sary. With due regard to the requirements of appercep- 
tion and the needs of the course of studies in our schools, 
the spelling book ought not to contain more than about five 
or ten thousand of the two hundred thousand words defined 
in the Century Dictionary. And this list can be made to 
include practically all the difficulties of English orthog- 
raphy. Such a prepared list is certainly a great conveni- 
ence to the busy teacher, and saves the pupil from the indis- 
criminate list so often inflicted upon classes by amateur 
teachers. (2) The spelling book also brings the list within 
proper range of sight, and thus prevents the eye-strain so 
often resulting from the long-range copying of black-board 
lists. (3) Then, too, the spelling book serves as a stimulus 
to spelling, because the subject is thus honored like other 
subjects, such as grammar, history, etc. Statistics show that 
both teacher and pupil neglect spelling as spelling when 
the spelling book is banished. (4) To avoid the abuse to 
which the spelling book has so often been subjected, sen- 
tences consisting of the listed words should be found on 
every page, and these as well as the lists should be dictated 
to the class. By combining the meaning with the spelling 
of the words, these " dictation " lessons make it almost 
impossible to go too rapidly through the book for the grade- 
needs of the pupil. This was the abuse which brought the 
spelling book into bad repute. (5) Finally, by giving the 
pupil specific directions for the study of the words and 
sentences in the spelling book, as Mr. Ward and other 
recent authors do, right psychophysical habits of studying 
spelling can be cultivated. 

The IText Lesson. — The next spelling lesson should 
have the most obvious connection with other school work 



SPELLING 141 

already performed or presently to be performed by the 
class. It should not only be possible for the average pupil 
of the class to prepare the lesson, but to do so without waste 
of valuable school time and school energy. The investiga- 
tions of eminent specialists show that, other things being 
equal, those pupils who devote less time to special lessons 
in spelling spell almost as well as other pupils because all 
school work affords more or less exercise in spelling; that 
the only justifying reason for special spelling lessons is 
the power which such lessons have to develop general atten- 
tiveness to the alphabetic structure of words, and that this 
effect can be secured by short lessons and short recitations 
as well as by longer ones ; and specifically that ten or fifteen 
minutes a day is all that the average pupil can afford to 
devote to special spelling lessons. 

Preparation for the Recitation. — It is of the utmost 
importance to make certain preparations for the spelling 
recitation. 

Preparation to Teach a Spelling Lesson. — The 
teacher should be sure that he knows the correct pronuncia- 
tion of the words to be spelled, and he should cultivate pro- 
nouncing skill. These preparations will enable him to 
assign lessons and to dictate them effectively in recitations, 
so as not to leave confusing impressions in the minds of the 
learners. The teacher should, of course, also be prepared to 
define and illustrate the meaning of words whose spelling 
depends upon the meaning. 

The Spelling Pupil Learning Words. — (1) In com- 
mitting the conventional alphabetic structure of English 
words we often fail to bring arbitrary letters, repeated 
letters, and silent letters definitely into the field of the 
senses employed. These indefinite impressions interfere 
with each other in the mind and produce confusion of asso- 
ciations, thus keeping the desired word-structure from 
becoming a " smooth path,'' or perfect mental habit, through 
the number of repetitions that should usually produce these 



142 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

results. Sucli confusion, whether it amounts to deficiency, 
indefiniteness, or interference, should therefore be made as 
unlikely as possible in preparing spelling lessons. (2) 
Having taken the necessary precautions against confusion, 
the next important thing in committing alphabetic struc- 
ture is enough attentive repetition to produce the desired 
perfect mental habit. (3) In order to save valuable school 
time commonly eaten up by the repetition work which pro- 
duces perfect habit, that combination of senses which is 
most effective in memory work should be cultivated in pre- 
paring spelling lessons. Expert investigations show that 
for the majority of pupils the most effective way to learn 
to spell a word is to copy it repeatedly, and preferably from 
a script " copy," thus combining sight vdth the muscular 
sensations which the writing movements produce not only 
in the hand but even in the vocal and auditory apparatus. 

Ordinarily the likelihood of confusion is eliminated and 
enough attentive repetition assured by requiring pupils to 
copy repeatedly the words assigned and also the sentences 
into which the spelling book should build these words at 
the bottom of the page. Spelling books not constructed to 
meet these requirements should be discarded. 

When the practice just recommended is ineffective, obe- 
dience to the following rules should be cultivated in pre- 
paring spelling lessons. (1) Find the letters of a word in 
their order with the eye. When this analytic attention has 
become habit arbitrary letters, repeated letters, and silent 
letters will be definitely associated. (2) Copy the word 
rapidly first " at sight " and then " from memory." Do 
this repeatedly, thus developing ease, speed, skill, and 
momentum in the alphabetic structure as a mental habit. 
When this synthetic attention has become a habit, the spell- 
ing mind is likely to run in " smooth paths " in writing out 
thoughts. (3) Compare the copied word letter for letter 
with the book word, thus compelling the mind to dwell 
longer upon the alphabetic structure and adding repetition 



SPELLING 143 

to repetition. (4) Associate the correct pronunciation of 
the word with seeing, copying, and comparing. Do this 
consciously, but not necessarily aloud, thus compelling the 
vocal and auditory apparatus to support the committing 
process. 

Spelling Recitations 

The ends in view in teaching spelling are best served by a 
combination of incidental and special exercises. 

Incidental and Special Spelling. — A certain amount 
of preparatory and corrective spelling combined with all 
school work keeps the mind " on the lookout " for hard 
words. When this alertness becomes habit, special spelling 
recitations will need to occupy less and less time. iN'or will 
such " incidental " spelling encroach much upon the time 
of other school work if the teacher is really an effective 
teacher. And yet as already explained, special spelling 
recitations consuming only a minimum of time serve as 
effective stimuli to spelling, and, when properly managed, 
afford effective exercise in spelling. Whether incidental 
or special, the spelling may be oral or written, according to 
the purposes to be accomplished. 

Value of Oral and Written Spelling. — The fitness of 
means to ends determines the educational value of any exer- 
cise. In spelling recitations the special ends are these: 
(1) to make effective attention certain, (2) to conquer the 
" stuff " in question, and (3) to serve the purposes of life. 

Stimulus to Attentioi^. — (1) In oral spelling, as 
explained, pupils should be required to stand ; this require- 
ment relieves the monotony of sitting still in the seats, and 
thus pleases pupils. (2) Oral spelling affords pleasure to 
younger pupils by affording them an opportunity to use 
their voice. (3) United with the good mood into which 
standing and speaking as motor-opportunities put younger 
pupils, an appeal to the strong competitive instinct by means 
of a well-planned " trapping " system, will generally assure 
perfect attention to every word in question. 



144 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

For older pupils, in whom as a rule, ihe motor and com- 
petitive instincts are less assertive, written spelling is the 
only perfect guarantee that every pupil spells every word. 
As a variety, even older classes may sometimes recite orally, 
but ordinarily written spelling should be substituted more 
and more as the class grows older. 

Successful Memory. — (1) In the early school years 
the ear-impressions of normal boys and girls are more likely 
to be remembered than eye-impressions. Ordinarily the 
child avails himself instinctively of this advantage by try- 
ing to " study aloud " especially when committing some- 
thing to memory. In other words, younger pupils are 
commonly " ear-minded " rather than " eye-minded " in 
memory work. Eor this reason oral spelling should not 
only not he discarded, hut preferred in the early school 
years. (2) Then, too, the senses naturally support each 
other in most mental attacks. (3) In the cases of defective 
eyes, so common in our days, oral spelling is the necessary 
supplement or substitute. 

(1) The fact that normally the pupils whose eyes are 
perfect have less trouble with spelling than those whose eyes 
are defective, and that deaf persons with good eyes learn 
to spell quicker than blind persons with good ears, together 
with the fact that normally most boys and girls become 
rapidly eye-minded in school work, indicate that written 
spelling should he used increasingly more than oral spell- 
ing, even hefore the age of ten or twelve. To adopt 
an explanatory metaphor from photography, the longer 
" exposure " of the word in written spelling normally makes 
the " after-images " of sight " stick better " than those of 
hearing where, as in oral spelling, the exposure is only 
momentary. (2) That the ripened perfect eye is more 
[reliable than the ripened perfect ear is instinctively recog- 
nized in the well-known habit of proving the correctness of 
a word orally spelled by writing it afterwards " just to see 
how it looks/' and further by the fact that those who spell 



SPELLING 145 

well orally do not always spell well in writing, while those 
who spell well in writing also spell well orally. 

Economy. — (1) In the "incidental spelling" which 
must be so intimately combined with all school work oral 
spelling usually takes less time than written spelling. In 
the reading recitations of the lower grades, where spelling 
ability may fairly be taken as an index of ability in read- 
ing, and where the trapping system is well managed, oral 
spelling is a most effective stimulus to all-round industry 
and progress. 

In the ordinary affairs of life we could almost dispense 
with oral spelling. With written spelling it is different; 
we need it almost every day, and in the most varied inter- 
ests. The ability to spell orally is not, as was pointed out, 
a sufficient guarantee that a person can spell well in writing 
letters, etc. Correct spelling in written communications, 
as will be explained, is desirable both on its own account 
and for other reasons. In view of this practical importance 
of written spelling, and the fact that the large majority of 
boys and girls " stop school " before they can be graduated 
from the high school, it becomes necessary to substitute 
written for oral spelling as rapidly as the interests of per- 
fect attention and successful memory permit. 

Oral Spelling Recitation. — The importance of correct 
impressions through the sense of hearing, combined with 
enough effective repetition in the mind of every member of 
the class, makes a number of special features necessary in 
oral spelling recitations. 

Getting Keady. — The oral spelling class should be re- 
quired to stand rather than to take seats. The standing 
posture is a physical relief from seat-work, and is obviously 
more convenient when the trapping system is used. The 
posture should be both healthful and orderly, but not stiff 
and nerve-racking. 

Giving Out the Words. — (1) The trapping system 
requires that the words be passed from " head " to " foot " 
10 



140 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

in order. (2) The teacher can usually secure perfect atten- 
tion by pronouncing the words distinctly and only once 
except for good reasons. (3) As an additional stimulus to 
attention the same word may be given by nod of the head 
or other appropriate signal to the next pupil just as if it 
had been misspelled. This device compels the pupils to 
be sure of every word, and by spelling it correctly to keep 
from being trapped. (4) When a word has been misspelled 
a new one may be given to the next pupil just as if the 
word in question had not been misspelled. The first pupil 
who spells the misspelled word takes his place above the 
one that missed it. The teacher should not give out the 
words in any order which might tempt the pupils to commit 
their " turns." (5) Words should be pronounced naturally, 
as in good reading, and not suggestively, as when the a in 
the word orator is purposely lengthened. (6) The teacher 
should not allow himself to fall into the habit of saying 
" right,'' " wrong," " next," etc. This habit is not only 
foolish, but tends to make spellers depend too much on the 
teacher's word. (7) When the spelling of a word depends 
on its meaning the word should be defined or its use illus- 
trated in a sentence. 

Spelling the Words. — (1) In oral spelling, the pupil 
should be required to pronounce the word before he spells, 
to make sure that the word was understood, thus preventing 
confusion, injustice, disputes, etc. (2) Younger pupils 
should pronounce each syllable after spelling it, thus im- 
pressing the word more effectively by analytic attention. 
To do this with long polysyllables is a waste of time, and 
quite unnecessary for pupils old enough to spell long poly- 
syllables. A momentary pause after each syllable is suffi- 
cient to impress the word analytically. (3) The word 
should in all cases be pronounced again when fully spelled. 
This done, all concerned feel that the business is over, and 
that something else is coming. 

Assigning the N'ext Lesson. — (1) It is not enough, 



SPELLING 147 

especially with younger pupils, to close the oral recitation 
by assigning " the next twenty-five words." Unless the 
pupil knows the correct pronunciation of the words for the 
next recitation, he will go to his seat unable to combine the 
correct pronunciation of the word with his preparation of 
the lesson. In that event he loses an advantage in the 
mastery of the word itself, and comes to the next recitation 
unprepared to spell what the teacher pronounces. This is 
particularly true of words containing arbitrary or silent 
letters, as in else, phthisic, picturesque, etc. ( 2 ) The pupils 
should therefore be required to pronounce the new lesson 
before going to their seats, the words passing from head to 
foot. When the teacher must come to the rescue it should 
be by means of diacritical marks on the blackboard. The 
time spent is not lost. 

Written Spelling Recitation. — The possibility of mak- 
ing the written recitation a perfect stimulus to faithful 
preparation, and a perfect means in developing rapid accu- 
racy in spelling, is very great. The former effect is secured 
by leaving no room for hesitation in writing the words, and 
the latter by making indefinite and confusing impressions 
as unlikely as possible. 

Getting Ready. — (1) For younger pupils the black- 
board can be used to great advantage in written spelling 
recitations. This use of the blackboard brings the pupils 
into helpful social relations, affords motor satisfaction, and 
keeps the whole class under the teacher's eye. "When the 
board is used the pupils should be required to pass quietly 
but erectly to the board, prepare it, write their names near 
the top to the right of the places to be used by each. Wlien 
the signal is given, the pupils should face the board ready 
to write each word as it comes from the teacher's lips. The 
postures should be natural and graceful. 'No disturbing 
conduct should be tolerated, and absolute attentiveness 
should be the rule. (2) When slate and pencil, or paper 
and pencil, or pen and ink with prepared blank-books, are 



148 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

to be used, these materials should of course be ready for use. 
The pupils should be seated comfortably, temptation to 
copy and prompt should be made as unlikely as possible, 
and perfect quiet preserved. 

Giving Out the Words. — (1) When everybody is 
ready, — and that should be without waste of time, — ^the 
words should be pronounced fast enough to allow the pupil 
no room for hesitation. The words should, of course, be 
pronounced correctly and distinctly, but only once, except 
for good reasons. For obvious reasons it is generally better 
that the teacher rather than a pupil gives out the words. 
As soon as the word has been written, some pupil ought 
to be requested to use it in an illustrative sentence, or to 
tell in his own way without delay what the word means. 
The teacher should have a stock of illustrations on hand. 
(2) To develop the habit of capitalization and punctua- 
tion, and also to keep from going through a spelling book 
too fast, the words should be given out not only as listed, 
but in sentences especially constructed for the purpose. 
The teacher gives out these sentences by reading parts at 
a time, or the whole, if possible, but leaving no time for 
erasures. 

Writing the Words. — (1) Except in "Sentence" 
spelling, the words should be legibly written in columns 
from above and numbered. Only proper names should 
be capitalized, and no punctuation marks should be 
used after the words. (2) As soon as possible prepared 
blank-books, with pen and ink, should be used. This 
method effectually prevents erasures and " second trials,'' 
first steps to indecision and dishonesty. It also serves as 
a stimulus to faithful preparation of the lessons. 

Corrections. — (1) The board, slates, or papers, of 
beginners, should be corrected by the teacher himself. 'Not 
to do so, is to expose the immature moral nature needlessly 
to the temptation of reporting mistakes falsely. (2) Older 
boys and girls should be required to " exchange " slates, 



SPELLING 149 

papers, or books, tlms exercising them in self-control and 
responsibility. The right of appeal to the teacher must be 
allowed when pupils do not correct their own lists, and the 
teacher should frequently, though not obtrusively, inspect 
the corrected lists to make sure of his pupils. (3) The 
advanced class should be required to correct their own lists, 
thus emancipating them completely from the teacher's moral 
supervision. But the pupils should be encouraged to hand 
the corrected list to classmates or teacher. Corrections may 
be made with crosses, figures, etc. (4) At the close of the 
recitation, the misspelled words should be recorded in a book 
kept for the purpose. If prepared blank-books are used 
by the class, the words may be correctly written by the pupil 
in the space following the misspelled word. This is the best 
method; it compels the pupil to correct confused impres- 
sions, and furnishes the teacher with the words that must be 
reviewed. 

Spelling Reviews. — Misspelled words should be faith- 
fully recorded and studied in order to correct the false im- 
pressions. When the teacher thinks best, the regular period 
for oral or written spelling should be used in part, or wholly, 
if necessary, to recite the words misspelled in the last week 
or two. Such reviews make it necessary for the pupil to 
study the very words which ought to be studied. The lists 
of words to be spelled in these review recitations may in- 
clude words misspelled in reading lessons, compositions, ex- 
amination papers, etc. ; but should always be reasonable 
lists. 

Spelling Matches. — Review recitations in spelling and 
other important spelling exercises may very profitably be 
converted into spelling matches. Asa competitive exercise 
the spelling match is a powerful stimulus to prepare the 
list to be spelled and to alertness in class. But this intro- 
duction of the competitive instinct may harm the moral 
nature of the speller, and thus more than cancel the gain to 
spelling, by tempting to dishonesty and by causing bitter- 



150 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

ness. These effects can undoubtedly be eliminated by 
proper supervision, and such supervision is of course im- 
perative. To this end, all disorder must be made impos- 
sible, and all conditions of the match, such as the words 
to be spelled, the rights of the spellers, the time to be given 
to the match, etc., must be fully understood by all. IsTor 
should these matches be allowed to eat up time that properly 
belongs to other studies. When they do come, say once in 
three weeks, the last half hour of Friday afternoon may 
be used. 

Oral Spelling Match. — When the time for the match 
has arrived two ^^ captains " are " nominated " by the class 
and " confirmed " by the teacher. These step forward. 
After deciding which captain may choose first, they " choose 
sides,'' calling for contestants alternately until the " re- 
cruits " have all been '^ enlisted." Then the contest begins. 
(1) If the captain who had first choice in choosing sides, 
misses the word given to him by the teacher, he is " out " 
of the contest. The word is then passed to the otlier cap- 
tain, and so on alternately until it is correctly spelled, all 
those missing it being " out," or " spelled down." This is 
known as the '' Common Method." (2) If several persons 
on both sides miss a word, and those whose side finally spells 
the word correctly are allowed to remain in the contest, it is 
called " Saving and Out." The latter tends to prevent the 
" panic " which so commonly causes excitable spellers to 
miss words. This saving method prevents much of the 
nervous, noisy dropping out of line to which the Common 
Method gives rise. 

Written Spelling Match. — The written spelling match 
is not nearly as exciting ; the " crises " come and go un- 
known to the class. And yet the ingenious teacher can 
infuse enough of the competitive impulse into it to stimu- 
late grammar school and high school grades. The choosing 
of sides is the same as in the oral match. The spellers 
should be so seated that no two pupils of the same side 



SPELLING 151 

are near enoiigli to each other to provoke suspicion of col- 
lusion. The slates or papers should be passed to the nearest 
opponent for inspection. This opponent should be allowed 
to report the number of misspelled words, but the right of 
appealing to the teacher must be granted to the speller. 
The " reports " are placed on the board and added up for 
each side in full view of all concerned. The " additions " 
show which side is the winner. 

Teaching Rules of Spelling. — Those eight or ten rules 
of spelling Avhich so largely save the spelling memory, 
should be taught one after the other as soon as possible in 
grammar grades. The teaching process, as usual, should 
begin with observation, pass to induction, and end in 
deduction. 

Observatio]^. — ^ATien, for example, the rule for final 
consonants after accented vowels and before a vowel suffix 
is to be taught, the teacher writes four or five words of 
this class, like control, defer, permit, etc., on the board, but 
in a numbered column starting from above. Back of each 
word he writes a suffix beginning with a vowel. Then he 
asks the following questions : (1 ) With what sort of a letter 
do all the words (control, defer, permit, etc.) end? (2) 
What sort of a letter precedes the final consonants l^ r, t, 
etc.? (3) Which is the accented syllable of each word? 

(4) With what sort of a letter does each suffix begin ? 

(5) Then doubling the final consonant in each word, the 
teacher calls attention to the fact, and asks what he has done. 

In'ductio]^. — When the learner has seen what was done 
with these words, he is led to see that the same thing should 
always be done under the same conditions, and is then 
required to state this requirement as a rule. 

Deduction. — In order to develop the rule thus taught 
into a mental habit, the teacher gives the class a number of 
words to spell, mixing those that come under the rule with 
others until he is satisfied that the rule has really become 
the desired mental habit. 



159 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Value of Spelling 

Tlie value of spelling depends upon its fitness as a means 
to ends in education. These ends, as in all tests of studies, 
are culture and service. 

Culture. — (1) Englisli spelling, largely because it is 
so arbitrary, helps to develop that associative memory so 
much needed in the daily program of busy people. As in 
daily tasks, so in English spelling, the next thing must be 
recalled as next not, as a rule, because there is logical 
connection, but simply because it is conventionally next. 
English spelling is really the only special provision in our 
school curriculum for this necessary kind of memory. (2) 
The possibilities for moral good or ill in spelling lessons 
are more like those of daily life out of school than in any 
other branch of study in the lower schools. As an appeal 
to the desire for " good standing," " trapping " tends to 
provoke envy, jealousy, etc., and thus tempts the speller to 
trample conscience under foot wilfully. And yet to dis- 
pense with this stimulus to spelling is a great loss to spelling 
at a time when progress in spelling is the measure of success 
in other studies. But this is really a valuable opportunity 
for the teacher. By accustoming the speller to submit to 
just conditions, whatever the resulting success or failure 
may be, the teacher really prepares the speller for many 
exactly similar moral situations out of school. The correc- 
tion and report of errors, one of the most important necessi- 
ties in teaching spelling, also becomes a valuable oppor- 
tunity to accustom the speller to do what conscience says is 
right no matter what the heart may desire. The manner of 
supervising this opportunity has been explained. The 
appeal to the competitive instinct in spelling matches tends 
to tempt spellers to cheat as a " party " interest. The 
teacher who, through personality and justice of require- 
ments, accustoms the sides to subordinate " party interest " 
to " party merit " prepares the pupil for similar serious 



SPELLING 153 

moral situations in life. As an appeal to the " desire for 
success," both trapping and spelling matches accustom the 
will of the learner to master the details which help to win 
success. The habit acquired in spelling extends itself to life. 

A Significant Skill. — (1) What has just* been ex- 
plained also explains the high repute in which good spellers 
are held. The good speller becomes a good speller not only 
by exercising himself in associative memory, but especially 
also by attention to details, by mastering himself when 
tempted to cheat, by subordinating impulse to reason, etc. 
We like these qualities in our friends, in teachers, in em- 
ployees, in literary masters, in scientific treatises, etc., and, 
whether justified or not in the assumption, we jump to the 
conclusion that when we have a good speller he has all 
these desirable qualities. (2) Then, too, bad spelling in 
manuscript and books is a mechanical offence to the reader. 
It makes us halt over words, and thus interferes with the 
process of getting " thoughts." 

Training of Teacher. — The fact that spelling offers 
such large possibilities for good or ill, and that good spelling 
is so highly esteemed, makes the training of the spelling 
teacher very important. He should thoroughly master the 
psychology and ethics of spelling, and perfect himself in 
all the details of method. Sanity of judgment and feeling 
in the matter of the importance of spelling as a branch, 
is especially desirable in teachers, because of the effect such 
sanity will have on the teacher as a teacher and on the pupil 
as a pupil. 

History of Spelling 

The arbitrariness which characterizes English orthog- 
raphy is partly due to alphabetic necessity, partly to the 
composite character of the language, and partly to accident. 

The English Alphabet. — The twenty-two hieratic char- 
acters which the Phoenicians, in the time of the Hyksos, or 
before that, borrowed from the Egyptian system, and con- 
verted into letters, and which were passed in succession 



154 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

to the Greeks, Eomans, etc., were finally supplemented in 
number and modified in expressive power, until there were 
twenty-six English letters for about forty English sounds. 
The Roman missionaries were the first to reduce the Anglo- 
Saxon language to writing. " They used the Roman letters, 
in nearly their Roman value, and added new characters 
for the sound of a in fat, th in their (dh), th in thine , 
and iv/' 

A Composite Language. — (1) The four centuries of 
Roman sway in the British Isles introduced a large admix- 
ture of Latin into the English language. The final fusion 
of the conquering [N^ormans w^ith the conquered Anglo- 
Saxons brought additional admixtures into the English 
language. With the Latin and Gorman admixtures came 
Greek and other admixtures, until the English language is 
very highly composite. The Greek and Roman admixtures 
are particularly large, as the result of their contributions 
to science, art, literature, philosophy, and law. (2) In 
the anglicizing process both the eye and the ear demanded 
recognition. The denotation of the composite word was 
to be obvious to the eye, and derivatives which threatened 
to be ambiguous to the ear were to be differentiated in 
spelling. These two considerations produced many digraph 
and other equivalents like th, ph, ch, ps, sch, etc. ; many 
repetition-letters and silent letters to modify the represen- 
tative value of adjacent letters, as in ball, state, etc., and 
many euphonic assimilations, as in suffusion, etc. 

Effects of Accident. — (1) There was no authorized 
orthography for any word before the invention of printing. 
Writers spelled words very much as the mood of the moment 
dictated. Thus it happened that words were spelled differ- 
ently by different authors, and that words were differently 
spelled by the same author at different times. To make 
the matter worse, the scribes that copied manuscripts were 
careless in spelling. There were some very remarkable 
exceptions to this rule. The spelling of the thirteenth 



SPELLING 155 

century Ormulum was remarkably regular, and the author 
even urged his copyists to follow his orthography with 
utmost exactness. Chaucer, who wrote a century later, care- 
fully revised his own works, and urged his scribe to " write 
more trew." The orthography of Shakespeare's times, 
though so much later than that of Chaucer, was far from 
settled ; even the name of the great poet was written more 
than thirty different ways. (2) Even Gutenberg's inven- 
tion of printing by means of movable types, in 1456, failed 
to convert chaos into order at once. Printers often spelled 
words as prompted by convenience of space, now adding 
a letter, now omitting it, to suit the case. 

Publication of Dictionaries. — At last the era of lexi- 
cographers was ushered in. Reason rather than humor now 
began to determine the spelling of words. Dr. Johnson's 
celebrated dictionary, published in 1755, settled usage defi- 
nitely in favor of some one of the numerous forms in which 
words were written, and thus removed the cause of confu- 
sion. In other words, Johnson's dictionary became a 
standard of English orthography. The great lexicogra- 
phers, E'oah Webster and Worcester, followed early in the 
nineteenth century. They adopted orthographic principles 
which met with almost universal approval. They not only ex- 
hibited the significance of composite words by conformity to 
primitive structure, but also reduced as many frequent com- 
binations as possible to simple rules. The "Standard Dic- 
tionary," published by Eunk and Wagnalls, and the " Cen- 
tury," both magnificent efforts, " prefer " the simpler to the 
arbitrary spelling of a large number of words in daily use. 

Spelling Reforms. — More thorough-going spelling re- 
forms than those of the recognized lexicographers have been 
attempted time and again. Among the first to attempt 
a phonetic system was Sir Thomas Smith (1568), Secre- 
tary of State to Queen Elizabeth. Eminent scholars in the 
time of Charles I. introduced orthographic changes, and 
tried to popularize phonetic spelling ; but, inasmuch as these 



156 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

efforts did not rest in settled principles, the effects were 
not permanent. In modem times, Dr. Franklin invented 
a phonetic system, but it was imperfect, and he scarcely 
used it himself except in a brief correspondence with a 
friend. Among recent attempts is that of A. M. Bell. 
Many leading philologists of England and America advo- 
cate reform in spelling. The ^^ Scientific Alphabet " sug- 
gested by Funk and Wagnalls in connection with the 
" Standard Dictionary," and consisting of the present alpha- 
bet plus three new letters, is very clever. The latest reform 
movement in spelling is known as " simplified spelling." 

Simplified Spellin^g. — Agitations begun by the philo- 
logical societies of England and America more than a quar- 
ter of a century ago led to the recent formation of a " Sim- 
plified Spelling Board," whose formulated purpose it is to 
rid our spelling of senseless anomalies and senseless appen- 
dages, thus simplifying and at the same time rationalizing 
spelling. And to make the simplifications still more 
rational, etymological principles are usually respected with 
philological faithfulness. This corrective purpose is in 
sharp contrast with the commonly revolutionizing tendency 
of all preceding phonetic reforms, and rather follows than 
leads reputable practice. Among the eminent members 
of the " Simplified Spelling Board " are Professor Brander 
Mathews, of Columbia University, the President of the 
Board; Professor Thomas Lounsbury, the most famous 
philologist in this country; Mr. Andrew Carnegie, who 
financed the movement; Mr. Samuel Clemens, otherwise 
known as " Mark Twain " ; and Mr. I. K. Funk, editor of 
the " Standard Dictionary." The movement has the active 
support of President Roosevelt, the " xTational Educational 
Association," etc. Up to the present the Board has listed 
300 words which anyone can secure by writing to 'No. 1, 
Madison Avenue, New York city. Among them are such 
words as esthetic, dipt, defense, etiquet, draft, thru, criti- 
cize, preterit, fulfil, dulness, program, esophagus, labor, 



SPELLING 157 

fantasm, bur, center, surprize, simitar, catalog, and judg- 
ment. The words just quoted exemplify the 20 rules 
governing the 300 changes. 

The Pedagogy of Simplified SpELLiiq^G. — (1) As a 
pedagogical accommodation to the eye striving to know 
the meaning of derivative words the strict respect for 
etymological principles is simply admirable. Take, for 
example, the word "rime," formerly spelled rhyme by 
confusion with the Greek word rhythm, (2) The simpli- 
fied spelling of cough, enough, plough, thorough, and 
through is certainly less confusing than the old spelling, 
and for that reason more in harmony Avith the psychology 
of the committing process. The representation of five 
different syllabic sounds by means of ough in these words 
is only one example of the senseless combinations with which 
accident has burdened English spelling. If such anoma- 
lous orthography were an etymological suggestion to the 
learner's eye, the anomaly would be pardonable, but the 
very opposite is usually nearer the truth. (3) The substi- 
tution of " program," " catalog," " labor," ^^ preterit," etc., 
for the older forms, thus ridding the words of encumbrances 
which affected neither the etymological suggestion nor the 
pronunciation, is for both reasons more rational, and there- 
fore more pedagogical. 

That there are limits beyond which the process of 
simplifying spelling should not attempt to go is very 
probably as evident to the eminent philologists on the Board 
as it is to the professional teacher. (1) The English lan- 
guage is full of words whose meaning is not known by 
pronunciation, as in to, too, tiuo. In all such cases, the 
original differentiation in spelling to show difference of 
meaning to the reader's eye, was not only justifiable, but 
also absolutely necessary so far as the matter can be settled 
by pedagogy and practical convenience. (2) To avoid 
confusion in the representation of forty sounds by means 
of twenty-six letters, the lexicographers regulated the pho- 



158 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

netic value of the ambiguous letters by placing modifying 
letters before them, after them, or both, as the case might 
require. Thus arose silent letters, as in mate, charge, 
notice; repetitions, as in ball, cheer, bidding; drop-letters, 
as in skating, judge; substitute-letters, as in ladies; 
and variable letters, as in receive and believe, cre- 
taceous and judicious. The twenty rules of the " Sim- 
plified Spelling Board " show how much barbarous anomaly 
the older lexicographers have conventionalized in spite of 
better intentions. The " Board " has, however, gone prac- 
tically to its limits in the process of simplifying our con- 
ventional spelling, as must be obvious to all who are quali- 
fied to judge. Further revision would encroach upon the 
very eye-helps which prevent confusion in the committing 
process, and would therefore be pedagogically wrong. (3) 
To extend the process of simplifying English spelling ma- 
terially would also result, as specimen pages show, in a mul- 
titude of words so nearly alike in form as seriously to 
embarrass the reading process. 

Delighted as teachers should be, on the whole, with the 
pedagogical merits of the 300 words listed by the Spelling 
Board, and anxious as we should be to see printers, publish- 
ers, and educational institutions adopt the recommended 
spelling, we cannot hope, confronted as we are by the in- 
sufficiency of the English alphabet and phonetic likeness of 
English words, to solve the most serious problems in the 
pedagogy of English spelling by simplifying spelling much 
further. The most serious problems of teaching English 
spelling will ever continue to be problems of necessary 
vocabulary, and the psychology of the committing process. 
!N'ot reformed spelling, but the prevention of confusion in 
the committing process, combined with obedience to the 
laws of habit, both in the preparation and the recitation of 
the lessons, will bring us mental peace. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Pedagogical Seminary, December, 1906. 



CHAPTER V 

COMPOSITION 

Nature 

The process of expressing thoughts in related sentences 
is termed Composition, from the Latin words, con, to- 
gether, and pono, I put. 

Subdivisions. — (1) A composition making known in 
terms of sense the appearance or the nature of a thing 
in space, is termed Description. In other words, a descrip- 
tion of a thing in space is to any of the senses what the 
photograph is to the eye. Persons, places, things, phenom- 
ena, etc., are the "things in space.'' (2) A description of 
events is termed a JSTarrative. The events may be real or 
fictitious. History, biography, novels, anecdotes, stories, 
etc., are narratives. (3) A written substitute for conver- 
sation is a Letter. Letters may be didactic, official, com- 
mercial, introductory, etc. (4) When the composition is 
a brief expression of opinion on an abstract subject, such 
as the value of athletics, or the need of school supervision, 
it is termed an Essay. A very systematic essay on a 
subject assigned as a test, or chosen for debate, is termed 
a Thesis. An exhaustive thesis, such as a text-book, is 
termed a Treatise. (5) A composition intended for hearers 
is termed an Oration. Speeches, addresses, lectures, ser- 
mons, etc., are species of oration. (6) When the ruling 
purpose is to tell ideal feelings in ideal language, the 
composition is termed Poetry. Rhythm, and sometimes 
rhyme, are among the linguistic devices of poetry. Expres- 
sive figures are employed effectively. Hymns are poems. 

The Stuff of Composition 

The " stuff " with which the pedagogy of composition 
must be concerned consists of the selecting of subjects, the 

159 



160 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

making of plans or outlines, the gathering of materials, and 
the constructing of these according to the plan. 

Selecting Subjects. — The selection of a subject for a 
composition determines what materials must be accumu- 
lated, and what plan of construction will be most appro- 
priate, just as these things are determined by an architect. 
The materials and plans which will do for a story will not 
do at all for an essay, just as materials for a cottage — 
and a plan — will not do for a fortress. 

Subject Rules. — (1) Composition subjects should be 
" worth while," the dictate of " good sense," and '^ person- 
ally interesting." Empty subjects, foolish subjects, and 
distasteful subjects, should be avoided. (2) The subject 
should always be one that the pupil can handle — one on 
which he can find materials, one that suits his age and 
attainments. For a boy ten years of age such a subject as 
The Jury-System would be out of place, while Mary's 
Play-Eoom would hardly do for High School boys. (3) 
The subject should be chosen for a special purpose, either 
for the writer's training, as a test, or to serve occasions. 
Topics in politics would hardly do for Sunday-school 
addresses, while " Skating " would hardly be a test for 
IsTormal School seniors. 

Making Outlines. — The plan to be followed in the 
structural arrangement of thoughts is sometimes called an 
" outline." Other terms are used, such as " skeleton " and 
^* synopsis." The composer needs such an outline as much 
as the builder of a house needs the frame. 

OuTLii^E EuLES. — (1) The kind of composition to be 
written determines the kind of outline needed. The out- 
line for a description needs to be organic ; that of narratives, 
chronological; while outlines for essays and orations must 
be logical in sequence. For illustrations the methods 
student is referred to his study of rhetoric or any up-to-date 
text-book on rhetoric. (2) A " collecting " outline is the 
first need. When the subject has been chosen, even a 



COMPOSITION 161 

" rough outline " will keep the pupil on the track while 
employed in gathering materials. This is in every way 
desirable. (3) The writer, like the builder of a house, 
completes the undertaking by arranging his materials as 
required by an outline developed from the rough collecting 
outline, and then called the '^ writing outline." 

Gathering Materials. — 'Writing compositions is like 
building houses. Materials must be accumulated, and pre- 
pared for special purposes. The materials for a composition 
are as follows : first of all ideas, then the words with which 
to frame the necessary sentences, and after that the sen- 
tences themselves, beautified by figures. 

Idea Rules. — (1) Only such ideas as relate directly to 
the subject should be cumulated. If, for example. Frogs 
is the subject, frog ideas are the ones to be cumulated. 
(2) Of those ideas which relate directly to the subject, the 
writer should try to use only such as suit his capacity. 
Only the maturer writers on frogs should attempt to use 
very abstract and generic frog ideas. (3) Of those ideas 
which relate directly to the subject, and which the writer 
is able to handle, only such as serve the purpose need be 
gathered. If the special purpose is to describe the anatomy 
of frogs, the writer should of course not cumber the occasion 
with ideas on the social habits of the frog. 

Modes of Gathering Ideas. — (1) If the subject for a 
composition is within the range of the senses, and is not 
too complex, as My Skates, the first thing to be required 
of the writer is that he " observes '' as closely as he can. 
Ideas thus obtained are " first hand," and warm with in- 
terest. (2) To be able to "converse" with people who 
can give us " pointers," as we say, often makes the obser- 
vation more effective, as in cumulating thoughts for a 
composition on a Motor Bicycle. (3) Books may be used 
to support the process of observing or conversing, as in 
working up an essay on Garden Fruits and their Insect 
Enemies. When observation is impossible, as in working 
11 



162 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

up an essay on The London Fogs, " reading " may be 
the only recourse. (4) When the subject permits it, or 
requires it, '' thinking '' should be added to observing, 
reading, etc., as in getting ready for an essay on The 
Value of a Reputation, or for a thesis on The Proofs of 
Immortality. There is no real substitute for real, vigorous 
reflection. Nothing takes the place of original opinions, 
if indeed reason dictates these, and really appeals to reason 
in the reader or the hearer. 

Vocabulary Rules. — In order to express himself effec- 
tively, the composition writer needs a large and choice 
vocabulary. Only pure words, proper words, and precise 
words should be employed. When these are the qualities 
of the words employed, the writer's " diction " is said to 
be good. (1) Even foreign words, like quorum^ etc., are 
" pure " when they belong by adoption to the language em- 
ployed by the writer. (2) A word is '^ proper " when it 
expresses what the writer or speaker intended to express, 
as when he uses the longer word " Esophagus " rather than 
" sarcophagus " in speaking of the throat, or the word 
" distinguish " rather than " extinguish " in referring to 
debaters. (3) A word is precise when it expresses exactly 
what was intended. Partial synonyms like kill and assassi- 
nate, shorten and abbreviate, etc., must be used with greatest 
care. 

Modes of Acquiring Vocabulary. — The number of 
good words which many writers have at their command is 
very much smaller than it should be. Such a poverty of 
words is a serious handicap. Much can be done to remedy 
the trouble. (1) When the parents, teacher, and other asso- 
ciates use a large and effective vocabulary, the pupil almost 
unconsciously acquires this vocabulary for himself. New 
words attract the child's attention, and in younger years 
especially they stick to him like burs to the dress. It is 
therefore of great importance that the boys and girls should 
have the opportunity to be in con;ipany with those who 



COMPOSITION 163 

speak the English language effectively. (2) The number 
of words at command can be rapidly increased by writing 
down the new words met in the daily lessons of the school. 
This practice acts as a stimulus to use the words, thus 
keeping them from slipping out of mind before they come 
to be a fixed acquisition. (3) When pupils reach the 
fourth grade, if not sooner, they should be taught how 
to use a dictionary containing at least 20,000 good words. 
The teacher should make it necessary for the pupils to look 
for the meaning of a reasonable number of necessary words 
every day. This practice will not only give the learner 
a larger command of words, but will also guarantee that 
the words are used with propriety. (4) It is possible to 
know the dictionary meanings of a word, and use it with 
impropriety or with lack of precision after all. In the 
upper grades, the high school, etc., boys and girls must 
therefore be required to read as many good authors as 
the library to which such pupils have access affords. The 
faultless propriety and precision with which the masters of 
English prose and poetry use words will in time become the 
power of those who accustom themselves to read such 
authors. (5) The study of a foreign language is a fine 
training in precision. The use of the lexicon accustoms the 
translator to select the English rendering which best ex- 
presses what the foreign author meant to say. The student 
who hopes to use English words effectively can ill afford to 
go through school without a thorough course in translating 
foreigTi languages. (6) The desire to "show off" tempts 
more than a few speakers and writers to employ the long 
and pompous words instead of the short and expressive 
ones. This tendency should be corrected by convincing the 
offender that the most effective authors and orators are those 
who cultivate the less pretentious Anglo-Saxon rather than 
the long composites. In the arts and sciences, however, it 
is seldom possible to be exact and reliable unless by means 
of these composite words. 



164 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Sentence Rules. — A sentence, like a house, should be 
first of all fundamentally correct. After that the words, 
phrases, and clauses, like materials used in walls, should 
be arranged to express most effectively the purpose of 
the writer. Free individuality determines what the actual 
arrangements shall be. Writers differ in the ^^ style " of 
the sentences employed just as builders differ in the style 
of putting up a house. 

Writing the Composition. — When an outline, or anal- 
ysis, of a subject is followed, the completed composition 
will consist of paragraphs which as smaller composition- 
wholes make up the larger whole. The writer of the 
composition must of course complete the larger whole by 
completing all the smaller wholes in correct succession. 

Paragraphs. — A Paragraph is a group of thoughts re- 
lated closely to each other in succession and relating to a 
special point proposed for discussion in the fuller treat- 
ment of a subject. Grammatically a paragraph may consist 
of a single sentence. Ordinarily, however, this is the 
exception rather than the rule. In descriptive paragraphs 
adjectives appealing strongly to the senses should be used; 
in narratives short, rapidly moving sentences must be used 
to heighten the effect. Wlien the paragraph is inductive, 
as in argumentative discourse, the statement of facts pre- 
cedes the drawing of conclusions. In the deductive para- 
graph the statement of a principle is followed by the 
statement of its special applications. 'No paragraph should 
consist w^holly of one kind of sentences. The " choppy " 
paragraph is almost as bad as the heavy " periodic " style. 
The paragraph may be too long or too short. The first 
line of a paragraph should begin an inch from the paper 
edge, the other lines half an inch, the right margin need 
not be straight, and a new paragraph should begin on a 
new line. The thought to be expressed, rather than the 
rules just stated, should control the writer's mind. And 
yet there are requirements to which effective construction 



COMPOSITION 165 

of a sentence must conform. (1) The sentence should 
conform grammatically with the rules of agreement, as 
^vhen plural subjects have plural predicates. This require- 
ment is termed Concord. (2) It should be impossible to 
mistake the meaning of a sentence. This requirement is 
termed Clearness. To this end, the parts of the sentence must 
be so placed as to make their connections unmistakable, as in 
" I could see with half an eye that the room was swept." 
(3) The parts of a sentence which belong together should 
be closely dove-tailed. This requirement is termed Unity. 
To this end, the sentence usually begins with preparatory 
]3hrases or explanatory clauses, and ends with the principal 
assertion, thus avoiding '^ looseness." The rule applies 
especially to long involved constructions, as in Then, with- 
out precaution, and before the passengers became aware 
of the peril, he had put on all his steam and safely rushed 
the train across the yawning chasm. (4) Wlien possible, 
certain parts of the sentence should be so conspicuously 
placed as to make the sentence as a whole an emphatic 
statement. This requirement is termed Force, and holds 
especially for sentences whose parts are capable of being 
marshalled into ^^ balanced " opposition to each other, as 
in ^^ Great was Diana," or in contrasts like ^^ A good son 
maketh a glad father, but a wicked son is the heaviness of 
his mother." (5) When it can be done without sacrificing 
concord, clearness, unity, or force, the sentence should be 
so constructed as to please the ear. This requirement is 
termed Harmony. To this end, regulated accent, fluent 
word succession, alternation of the hissing and the liquid 
sounds, etc., are important. As examples take " The old 
man eloquent," " The light fantastic toe." For longer com- 
binations see George Eliot's " Mill on the Moss," Long- 
fellow's " Evangeline," etc. 

FiGUEES OF Rhetoric. — Such is our nature that we 
nearly all enjoy occasional deviation from the ordinary. 
This is true in language as in other things. The deviation 



166 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

startles us, thus impressing more effectively the thing in 
question. Figures of Khetoric, based as they are on un- 
expected likeness, contrast, and association, often help to 
make a sentence startlingly effective. A temperate use 
of Figures substitutes a charming vividness for the all- 
too-common " flatness '' that distresses us so much in the 
untrained writer. Among the figures of rhetoric with which 
the composition writer should become acquainted very early 
in the course are the simile, the metaphor, and the per- 
sonification. All the rest should be cultivated by and by. 

Oeganic Parts. — To be formally complete, a composi- 
tion must consist of an " Introduction," a '' Body," and a 
" Conclusion." (1) The Introduction is the part in which 
the writer announces his subject and tries to win attention. 
Some writers do this by asking interesting questions ; others 
use interesting statements, or startling anecdotes, etc. In 
any case the introduction should be courteous and dignified, 
brief and to the point. (2) The Body of a composition is 
the major part, the part in which the subject is discussed 
point after point as proposed in the analysis or outline. 
In descriptions the language should be vivid; in narra- 
tions the real sequence of events should be followed. To 
make the argument of an essay or oration just as cogent 
as it can be made from first to last, the language used 
must be just as perfect as it can be. Directness, concise- 
ness, and evident sincerity, are often more effective than 
periodic roundness and florid fulness. (3) The Conclusion 
of a composition is the flnal part, the part in which the 
writer strives to leave a lasting impression. This is some- 
times done by appealing to the feelings, sometimes by the 
use of a rising climax, or in argumentative discourse by 
briefly massing all the proofs in overpowering array. The 
language used must of course be suited to the purposes. 

Mechanical Pekfectiotvts. — (1) The "letter file," 
regulation size of paper is probably the best rule for school 
use in writing compositions. (2) In " one page " pro- 



COMPOSITION 167 

ductions, the subject should be written midway between 
the margins on the upper line, an inch or more from the 
top of the sheet. When the upper and the lower thirds 
of the sheet have been folded over the middle third, the 
history of the production should be recorded cross-wise 
on the back of the middle third. (3) In the ^^ many 
page " productions the history of the production should be 
recorded by itself on the first page. The outline, or 
analysis, should appear on the second page. The subject 
of the composition should be placed midway between the 
margins on the first line of the third page, as in the one 
page productions. The next line should be left unused. 
Paragraph rules controlling margins and lines should be 
strictly observed. Principal paragraphs should begin with 
headings underscored with two lines and followed by a 
period. Subordinate paragraphs should begin with head- 
ings once underscored, and under-paragraphs need no head- 
ing. Inside articles and prepositions of paragraph headings 
need no capitals. " Section headings " should be written 
on the second line from the close of a paragraph, and under- 
scored with three lines, etc. The next line should not be 
used. 'New chapters should begin on new pages. Only 
one side of the paper should be used in compositions meant 
for printers. 

TEACHING COMPOSITION 

To reconcile the pupil's mind with the claims of apper- 
ception in assignments is the composition teacher's first 
and serious task. If he fails in this, both school and 
teacher, as statistics show, are very unhappy. The very 
opposite is wholly possible. Apperception determines the 
necessary succession of assignments, that is, composition- 
courses. The rapidity with which apperceptively necessary 
assignments should be made depends first of all upon the 
possibility of causing the pupil to do the work effectively, 
and then upon the needs of life. 



168 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Apperceptive Requirements. — (1) Ideas and the words 
with which to express ideas, are the pupil's first necessity. 
(2) With ideas and the words which express them at his 
command, he must learn to construct sentences. (3) Sen- 
tence exercises pave the way for paragraphs. (4) Exer- 
cises in outline-making, or analysis of subjects, paves the 
way for the use of paragraphs in compositions. (5) Lessons 
on rhythm and rhyme prepare the learner for poetic 
productions. 

Adaptations. — (1) With younger boys and girls eager- 
ness to express what they can be taught to think is of 
more immediate importance to development than perfect 
form. (2) The earlier assignments should accordingly 
be based almost wholly on instinctive development rather 
than upon the formal claims of apperception. Progress 
should therefore be from the simple and interesting to the 
complex and necessary. 

Composition Courses 

The preparatory course in composition, — the course in 
which the claims of apperception are recognized in their 
simplest and most interesting forms, — is commonly termed 
" Language Lessons." 

Language Lessons. — Among the interests of childhood 
are sights, sounds, motions, pets, made things, events, pic- 
tures, novelties, relations, beauty, etc. And, as a rule, the 
desire to converse about interesting things is as strong as 
these interests themselves. (1) The course should therefore 
begin with descriptions of sights, sounds, motions, pets, 
made things, events, pictures, novelties, relations, beauty, 
etc. (2) Exercises in narration should often take the place 
of description. That is, there should be exercises in which 
the writer describes experiences, tells about events, reports 
conversations, plays biographer, etc. (3) Letter writing, 
based on interesting personal relations, should be introduced 
as soon as possible. (4) Delight in rhythm and rhyme, 
calls for lessons in these at an early age. 



COMPOSITION 169 

Coupled with these lessons, and based on many-sided 
curiosity, as well as on the sense of use and propriety, 
should be lessons on diction. These lessons should consist 
of finding and listing color-words, sound-words, motion- 
words, etc. Special lessons on sentence building, capitals, 
punctuation, abbreviation, quotation, paragraphs, etc., must 
of course be introduced as fast as necessary. 

Formal Composition. — Language Lessons should be 
gradually merged into " Formal Composition." In other 
words, the rules of perfection in selecting subjects, making 
outlines, gathering materials of thought, building the vocab- 
ulary, forming the style, and constructing the composition 
as a whole, should be emphasized more and more. All 
the forms of description, narration, letters, essays, orations, 
etc., should be cultivated, and there should be rapid apper- 
ceptive progress from the concrete to the abstract, from 
the particular to the general, from the simple to the com- 
plex. " The useful " should be emphasized more and more 
in connection with " the interesting." The teacher should 
encourage " originality " in the productions, and subject 
them to more and more exacting criticisms. 

Lesson Methods 

Like any other art, the art of expressing thoughts must 
be learned by observation of ideal illustrations, and by 
long continued practice. This, of course, is the same as 
saying that the composition-teacher is a habit-builder. In- 
struction must accompany the illustrations and the pupil's 
practice. Self-activity must be encouraged and perfected. 

Method in Language Lessons. — The foundations of 
language lessons are laid in the processes of teaching read- 
ing. In the third or fourth grade the pupil should be ready 
both in mind and sentence-building power, to begin the 
work of paragraph-construction. Ten or fifteen minutes 
should be given daily to the language lessons. 

Inteeesting Staet. — (1) The first approaches to the 



170 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

tasks of composition should be just as innocent as art on 
the part of the teacher can make them. The teacher may, 
for example, tell the third grade reading class about some 
interesting sights, pets, etc., in an interesting way. The 
class may then be led, one by one, to tell what they saw, 
heard, etc., on this or that occasion. After that the teacher 
may step to the board and write what she said, and ask 
the class to write what each one said, or what any one 
was led to say. To be able to put the learners at their ease 
in these lessons, and to get them to succeed, is happiness both 
for the teacher and the class. (2) As a rule it is well to 
have the whole class write on the same subject. The com- 
petition thus set up acts as a stimulus to effort. When, 
however, the pupil desires to write on a subject selected 
by himself, the wish should be often gratified. The recog- 
nition of such initiative reveals individuality and promotes 
energy. (3) Both in description and narration the pupils 
may be helped by means of questions to find " something 
to say." 

Sentence Perfections. — Capital letters, punctuation 
marks, abbreviations, quotations, margins, etc., should be 
taught at first by significant corrections coupled with skil- 
ful explanation. Presently some special lesson should be 
" driven home " every day for a while, until it becomes a 
part of the learner himself, and so on, week after week, 
lesson after lesson should be driven home until at last a 
sort of imitative perfection in the use of capitals, punc- 
tuation marks, etc., has been attained. 

Word Hunts. — By telling the same stories first with 
a poor and then with a rich vocabulary, the teacher can 
lead the language class to feel the need of a richer and a 
larger supply of ready words. The class will then enjoy 
lesson after lesson in finding and listing color-words, sound- 
words, motion-words, etc. This exercise may be substituted 
once a week for the lessons in describing sights. Perry 
pictures, events, etc. 



COMPOSITION 171 

Letter Writing. — The writing of simple and interest- 
ing letters should be introduced as soon as possible. An 
interesting letter may be read to the class. The teacher 
may copy it on the blackboard, and talk about the heading, 
introduction, body, close, signature, and the address on the 
envelope. The teacher may suggest various interesting 
personal relations, and ask the class to write letters. 

Rhythm A]srD Rhyme. — (1) Attention may be called to 
the rhythm and rhyme of poems in reading lessons. The 
pupils should be required to copy, commit, and recite poems 
that are suitable. To make these tasks delightful the poems 
used should be interesting in content. (2) Useful lessons 
in capital letters, punctuation, abbreviation, quotation, etc., 
can be combined with the copying of poems. By and by 
the children may be led to try to write little story poems. 

Criticisms. — (1) When the children recite what they 
have written, they should be led to make criticisms on all 
sorts of points. If frank and free, and without bitterness, 
these criticisms will serve as a most effective stimulus to 
better efforts. (2) As a farther stimulus, the teacher 
should encourage the class to write so well that the products 
may be worth reading, recording, keeping, etc. 

Method in Formal Composition. — In teaching formal 
composition, instruction and exercise must be so combined 
as to perfect and thus emancipate the learner in all his 
tasks. 

Selecting the Subjects. — In their early " teens " boys 
and girls grow confused and waste time if compelled to 
select composition-subjects. [N'or are they ripe enough in 
judgment to select subjects in harmony with subject-rules. 
And yet, unless required to select for themselves, they may 
remain too dependent. (1) To prevent all such results, the 
teacher should propose two subjects and make each one 
attractive by means of questions, discussions, and instruc- 
tion. After that the pupils should select for themselves. 
For comparison and stimulus the same subject must often 



172 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

be assigned to the whole class, but such suggestions and 
directions as may serve the purposes should accompany 
the assignment. Such class exercises should frequently give 
V7ay to free selections. Unless this freedom is permitted, 
there may be too much repression of the individuality of 
pupils. (2) When the composition is to count as evidence 
of proficiency in any course of training, the selection of 
the subject should be submitted for approval to the person 
interested in the result, as in graduating theses. (3) By 
assigning related topics to the various members of a class, 
and choosing times for the reading of such productions, 
the teacher may make composition a valuable mode of 
instruction in the broader fields of knowledge, and at the 
same time add inspiration to the tasks of composition. 

Makin^g Outlines. — In the later " teens,'' when system 
and organic thinking become more and more important, 
boys and girls should be taught how to make and use 
composition-outlines. (1) The teacher may copy illus- 
trative outlines on the blackboard and explain their use; 
or he may analyze chapters of a book into topics used by 
the author in his paragraphs, and thus form outlines; or 
he may take subjects for descriptions, narratives, essays, 
etc., and show the class how to construct outlines by asking 
questions and converting these into statements. The suc- 
cessive subdivisions should be suggestively placed and 
numbered. (2) To develop outline-making into perfect 
habit, composition-pupils should be exercised in copying 
suggestive outlines, analyzing lessons into outlines, and 
forming outlines on selected subjects. Outlines made by 
the pupils should be submitted to the teacher for inspection, 
criticism, and improvement. (3) The making and using 
of outlines both in collecting materials and for composition 
writing should become a perfect habit. 

Gatherin"g Ideas. — (1) The composition-teacher should 
illustrate the observing process very fully, and make this 
process necessary by assigning subjects for this purpose. 



COMPOSITION 1T3 

(2) He should illustrate the process of asking others for 
information that may not be attainable so effectively in 
any other way. The power to listen to readings and lectures 
and to report the same in outline or substance should be 
developed in the composition class. (3) The composition- 
teacher should illustrate the process of finding and consult- 
ing books, etc., that treat on given subjects. (4) The 
pupil should be habituated as much as possible to the 
right modes of cumulating ideas, until such cumulation 
becomes a pleasure. 

Building the Vocabulary. — (1) Systematic efforts 
should be made to accustom pupils to the larger vocabulary 
of good speakers and good writers. (2) Teachers should 
urge pupils to own convenient dictionaries, and school 
boards to furnish unabridged editions for the use of the 
school. The alphabetic process of quickly finding words 
should be illustrated. The abbreviations and diacritical 
system used in the dictionaries should be carefully ex- 
plained. The process of " looking up " the meanings of 
a word and selecting just the one that is needed, should 
be carefully illustrated. The habit of comparing synonyms 
and tracing etymologies should also be developed by and 
by. (3) The teacher should accustom his older pupils to 
read the classic authors, and call special attention to the 
rigid nicety of their most telling phrases. (4) Pupils 
studying a foreign language should be trained in the process 
of consulting lexicons, thus promoting precision in the use 
of English words and phrases. (5) That for ordinary 
purposes the Anglo-Saxon stock of English words is more 
effective than pompous classical derivatives, can be illus- 
trated by comparing writers. These comparisons are most 
needed in the adolescent years. 

Teachii^g Style. — (1) Lessons on style, like other 
lessons, should begin with blackboard and other illustra- 
tions. These illustrations, as in the case of the different 
kinds of sentences, together with capitals, punctuation, 



174. MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

abbreviation, quotation, sentence-qualities like concord, 
clearness, etc., and figures of rhetoric, should be accom- 
panied by effective explanation. (2) The things illustrated 
and explained must be built into perfect habit. To this 
end representative sentences, paragraphs, poems, etc., should 
be read, copied, committed, and recited. The attention 
and repetition thus required will in time make any per- 
fection of style a perfect habit. 

Teaching- the Mechanics. — All the mechanics of a 
composition must of course be taught in the same way as 
style. Illustrations must be accompaoiied by explanations. 
Practice must be supervised. 

Teaching Advanced Classes. — (1) The most perfect 
models should be used as illustrations in teaching advanced 
classes descriptions, narrations, letters, essays, orations, etc. 
These models may be found in the masterpieces of English 
literature, text-books on rhetoric, etc. The models must 
be studied critically and explained completely. (2) The 
high school should devote a good deal of time to social 
forms, business forms, official forms, etc., in letter writing. 
(3) In all written recitations of the grammar school, the 
high school, etc., topics may be so stated as to make it 
necessary for the pupil to express opinions in logical 
sequence. The written answer will be an essay consisting, 
let us say, of three or four related paragraphs. The 
mechanics of such work should be perfect. (4) For older 
boys and girls the conversion of poems into prose is an 
excellent exercise in sentence construction and paragraph 
building. (5) As an exercise in abstract reasoning ad- 
vanced composition pupils should occasionally be required 
to expand maxims and proverbs into essays. (6) High 
school classes may take sides, and write debates on ques- 
tions that provoke oratorical composition. 

The Writing Mood. — (1) Older boys and girls should 
be taught to put themselves into the mood to write. As a 
rule the only way to put one's self into the writing mood 
is to fill the mind with the subject. The person who is 



COMPOSITION 175 

" full of his subject " finds it easy to write, unless indeed 
heat or cold, noise or lack of sleep, pain or fatigue, should 
interfere. (2) Older boys and girls should be taught to 
prune, correct, and rewrite their compositions with merci- 
less severity before handing them over to teachers for 
inspection and correction. 

Correcting Compositions. — (1) In the case of younger 
pupils all necessary corrections must be made bodily by the 
teacher himself ; in the case of older pupils the teacher may 
use a system of abbreviations for the necessary corrections 
in spelling, capital letters, punctuation marks, indentions, 
purity, propriety, precision, concord, clearness, unity, force, 
harmony, figures, etc., and require the writers to make the 
corrections. The teacher should assure himself that all 
corrections are understood. (2) The composition should 
then be rewritten in a book, and kept for future comparison 
and stimulus. 

Composition Day. — (1) As a special stimulus, a special 
day may be set apart every week or two in the higher 
grades, for the reading of productions before the school. 
(2) When the hour for the reading of the compositions has 
arrived, the class or school gives up all other work. One 
writer after the other goes forward to the platform of the 
school-room, and reads his production just as effectively as 
possible. Such applause as the audience thinks the pro- 
duction deserves may then follow. Suitable remarks and 
criticisms by the teacher are in place. Music and declama- 
tions may be added to the program. The exercise may 
close with the selection or assignment of subjects for the 
next " Composition Day." 

The Value of Composition 

Composition may be made a most effective means in 
education. 

The Cultural Effects. — Judgment and individuality 
may be developed by selecting subjects; the power of 
analysis and logical relation by inventing outlines or plans 



176 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

of construction; the senses, reasoning, and memory by 
cumulating thought materials ; taste and imagination by the 
use of figures such as metaphors, etc.; will and corrective 
patience in completing perfectly what has been planned; 
exactness and humility by the revisions and corrections that 
must usually be made. 

Instruction. — (1) Pupils required to write recitations 
in the various branches of the school curriculum study 
harder, know more, and retain better, than others. (2) 
By supervising the selection of subjects and the cumulation 
of materials properly, the composition-teacher can use 
composition to enlarge the school curriculum most 
effectively. 

Life. — Skill in composition is a valuable equipment for 
modern life. Ability in letter writing is a fine accomplish- 
ment, and a most important business education. The 
essayist has often been a stimulating educator. The 
thoughtful page, almost as much as the tongue of eloquence, 
moulds opinions, shapes policies, etc. The ready pen is 
among the most powerful agencies in modern civilization. 

Trained Teachers. — The value of a course in composi- 
tion depends almost wholly on the training of the teacher. 
To make him inventive enough, the composition-teacher 
must have had a thorough course in composition. Unless 
this course includes grammar, rhetoric, and logic, he will 
fail in teaching sentence construction, figures, outline-mak- 
ing, and logical discourse. What the composition-teacher 
needs most of all is a knowing mind, and training in the 
psychology of interests. Apart from these qualifications 
the selection of subjects and sequence of subjects will be 
misery both to himself and his pupils. 

The History of Composition 

Written exercises constituted quite a large proportion 
of the daily tasks at school among the Greeks and Romans. 
As a consequence they have given us immortal " literary 



COMPOSITION 177 

forms." The Latin high schools produced by the Eenaissance 
devoted enormous amounts of time and energy to composi- 
tion in the interest of classic " eloquence/' the dominating 
school ideal of the humanists for centuries. The " realism " 
of the last two centuries has placed the emphasis not so 
much on " perfect form '' of expression as on " knowledge." 
Economic pressure has often caused composition to be 
badly neglected in American schools. This is imfortunate, 
to say the least. Perfection in the art of composition is, 
as shown, a worthy object; but this perfection is more 
difficult to attain than in almost any study of the schools. 
Above all this is the well known fact that composition 
writing is extensively interwoven with success in any course 
of study — an essential exercise in the acquisition of an 
education. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Essentials of English Composition for Elementary Schools. 
Shaw, N. E. A. Report, 1898. 

2. Paragraph Writing. American Education, October, 1907. 



12 



CHAPTER VI 

GRAMMAR 

Nature 

As already said, the stuff of any branch of study deter- 
mines the mental action, the course of study, and the 
methods of instruction. 

The Stuff of Grammar. — In the English language, as 
in all Aryan languages, inflections are employed to denote 
the offices and properties of words as names, and collocation 
to denote their relation in a sentence. These two aspects 
of language are so inseparable from each other and so 
separable from other aspects of language, as to constitute a 
special province of science. Emphasizing the inflection and 
collocation rather than the offices and relations of words 
used in the sentence, those who baptized the science named 
it " Grammar," from the Greek word Ypd(pw^ I write. 

The Special Provinces of Grammar. — (1) So far as 
grammar deals with the offices and properties of words as 
names, it is Etymology. (2) In employing inflections to 
denote the properties of words in sentences, grammar calls 
Orthography into service. (3) That phase of grammar 
which regards the sentence as a whole made up of words 
as parts, is known as Syntax, from the Greek words ffvv, 
together, and rarrw, I put. In as much as syntax deals with 
relations, it belongs to Logic, the science of true relations, 
or reasoning. 

Definition of Grammar. — Briefly defined, Grammar is 
the science of the sentence, and the art of speaking and 
writing sentences correctly. 

The Psychology of Grammar. — The nature of the 
mental action to which attack on the stuff of grammar gives 
rise determines the sequence of assignments in lessons, the 
necessities of method, and the value of the study. 
178 



GRAMMAR 179 

Definitions. — It devolves upon the grammar pupil, first 
of all, to learn tliose important distinctions, called offices 
and properties, which words are made to express by means 
of spoken or written alterations called inflections. These 
distinctions must be illustrated and labelled, as in teaching 
verbs, tense, gender, etc. The concepts, or general ideas, 
thus learned and labelled must be mentally and verbally 
defined. This conceptive process is induction coupled with 
memory. 

Inflections. — Those alterations of form to which words 
are subjected in order to denote the properties of words, 
must be observed in sentences, and built into declensions, 
conjugations and comparisons. The pupil must be made to 
understand that these inflections are the rules with which 
the words of a language are required to conform in denoting 
differences of person, number, case, etc. Thus far the 
mental action is inductive. For ready use these inflections 
must be committed. 

Sentential Eelations. — The most important lesson 
which grammar teaches — the grammar lesson preeminent — 
is the sentential relation of w^ords. Such relations as those 
of the subject to the predicate, of modifying to principal 
words, etc., often determine both the form and the place 
of words in sentences. Like other natural laws, these sen- 
tential relations are best learned by comparing instances, 
that is, by induction. For ready use in forming sentences, 
these laws of relation must be memorized into perfect habit. 

Parsing. — The process of examining a word in a sen- 
tence to find its office and its properties is known as Parsing. 
The parsing process is a reasoning process, as in ^^ Tell me," 
me is first person, because it denotes the speaker. This 
argument is equivalent to the deductive syllogism. 

Genus 1. All words which denote the speaker are first person 

words. 
Individual 2, In " Tell me," me denotes the speaker. 
Conclusion 3. Therefore me in " Tell me " is first person. 



180 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Analysis. — The process of examining a sentence to find 
the relations of the words used as parts is known as 
Analysis, from the Greek words ava, up, and Xoio^ I break. 
The analyzing process, like the parsing process, is deductive 
reasoning. To say that in " John runs fast,'' fast is an 
adverbial adjunct, because it modifies the predicate, is the 
same as the deductive syllogism, 

Genus 1. All words modifying predicates are adverbial adjuncts, 
Individual 2. In " John runs fast," fast modifies the predicate. 
Conclusion 3. Therefore fast is an adverbial adjunct. 

Syntax. — The process of denoting the compositional rela- 
tions of words in sentences by means of significant forms 
and places is termed Syntax. The mental process of syntax 
is also deductive reasoning, as in " It is I," I must be I 
because it is the subject of the sentence. Fully stated the 
argument is a deductive syllogism, as, 

Genus 1. All subjects of finite verbs are in the nominative case. 
Individual 2. In " It is I," I is the subject of a finite verb. 
Conclusion 3. Therefore " I " must be I, and not me. 

This syllogism is an argument in ^^ concord," but the col- 
location of words, phrases, and clauses, for clearness, unity, 
strength, and harmony, requires the same kind of reasoning. 

TEACHING GRAMMAR 

The problem of teaching Grammar involves both courses 
and methods. 

Courses of Instruction 

The nature of the stuff to be attacked, together with the 
nature of the necessary mental action, require grammar to 
be taken up in courses. 

The Preparatory Course. — (1) As explained, the stuff 
of grammar is so abstract, and the necessary mental action 
consists so largely of reasoning, that the study should prob- 



GRAMMAR 181 

ably not be taken up seriously before the seventh grade, 
when the power to think the content of reading books has 
been pretty largely developed. (2) Only the simpler prop- 
erties and relations should be taken up the first two years, 
and these should be taken up in strictest harmony with 
apperceptive sequence. When thus simplified in assign- 
ments and sequence, and illuminated by effective blackboard 
illustrations, grammar will be fascinating to the great 
majority of boys and girls who are ready mentally. 

OuTLiN^E. — (1) The preparatory course should begin 
with the noun, verb, adjective, and adverb as parts of 
speech. (2) When the pupil has learned what nouns, verbs, 
adjectives, and adverbs are, he is prepared for lessons on 
simple subjects, predicates, and modifiers. (3) The sen- 
tence thus learned is the natural apperceptive preparation 
for all the other parts of speech. (4) The properties of all 
the parts of speech should next be taken up, care being taken 
to " make haste slowly," and to select the simpler properties 
at first. (5) To perfect the concepts taught into mental 
habits, property-lessons must early be coupled with informal 
parsing, analysis, and syntax. (6) The second year lessons 
should be given with sentences in which simple phrases and 
clauses are substituted for single words as subjects, com- 
plements, and modifiers. (7) The sentence-lessons of the 
second year should be worked more and more into practical 
connection with language-lessons. (8) The blackboard and 
the pupil's reader are to be preferred to a text-book in all 
the work of the preparatory course. 

Intermediate Grammar. — (1) The preparatory course 
in grammar should be followed by a course in which system 
and completeness can be emphasized. (2) For these reasons 
this course should be a text-book course, so that lessons may 
be regularly assigned and prepared. (3) An elementary 
text-book, covering the work done in the preparatory course, 
but with more completeness and system should be used for 
a year or more. 



182 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Advanced Grammar. — (1) The elementary book should 
be followed by a text in which the needs of composition and 
the ends of culture can be emphasized. (2) High school 
grammar should be reinforced by the study of French, 
German, or Latin. (3) The complexities and anomalies 
of grammar should be reserved for the riper years of 
rhetoric, logic, and philology. 

Elementary Grammar Methods 

The abstractness of the stuff of grammar makes simpli- 
fication the most necessary adaptation to the needs of the 
learner's mind. 

Elementary Lessons. — (1) To be apperceptively effec- 
tive the sentences used as illustrations should not be com- 
plicated by superfluous words. The sentences should be so 
placed under each other on the board that words to be com- 
pared stand suggestively under each other. To prevent 
confusion in attention the sentences should be numbered. 
(2) The concepts to be taught, such as tense, case, etc., 
should be taught by means of questions based on difference 
of spelling. The words to be used in teaching new concepts 
should therefore be suggestively different in spelling, and 
the difference should be suff2;estivelv underscored. When 
the learner has been led to see that some difference in spell- 
ing like ed denotes difference in time, he needs the label 
'^ Tense " for this new concept. He cannot be expected to 
invent this label. This is the " pedagogical crisis " of the 
elementary lesson. The teacher himself must come to the 
rescue. AVhen the technical term, or label, has been fur- 
nished, the pupil must be led to state in his own words 
what he has learned. This inductive definition may be 
incomplete and defective, but is vastly more emancipating 
in effect than ^' ready made'' definitions. (3) All the 
lessons should end in attempts on the part of the learner 
to find words in his reader and elsewhere that have the 
properties which he has learned. This process is deduc- 
tive, and completes the lesson. 



GRAMMAR 183 

The " ISTouN '^ Concept. — (1) Which words in the sen- 
tences on the blackboard are the names of persons, places, 
or things, James? Box, apple, Mary, meadow. (2) Chil- 
dren, such names are called '' Xonns." What is a noun, 
Alice 1 A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. 
(3) Please pick out the nouns on page 15 in jour reader, 
Peter. 

The "Adverb'' Concept. — (1) Which words in the 
sentences on the board qualify the verbs, Mildred ? Slowly, 
sweetly, kindly, quietly. (2) Children, such words are 
called Adverbs, which means added to verbs. What is an 
adverb, Karl? An adverb is a word added to a verb to 
qualify the verb. (3) Please find the adverbs on page 20 
in your reader, Emma. (The concept should be completed 
by means of sentences in which adverbs are added to adjec- 
tives, other adverbs, infinitives, and participles.) 

The "Subject" Concept. — (1) Sentences such as 
Mary laughs. The apple fell, Snow melts, should be written 
under each other on the board and numbered. The teacher 
asks, Which are the words about which something is said in 
the sentences on the board, Olive ? Olive says, " Mary, 
apple, and snow." (2) Children, such words are called 
Subjects. John, what is the subject of a sentence ? The 
word about which something is said is the subject of a sen- 
tence. (3) Children, please go to the board with your 
readers, and write in a column the subjects of the sentences 
on page 20. 

Presently the class must be led to see that phrases, clauses, 
and series of words, phrases, or clauses, may be subjects. 

The " Peeoicate " Concept. — (1) Sentences such as 
Pire burns. Wind blows. Water runs, may be used as before. 
After asking the class for the " subjects " of the sentences, 
the teacher says. Which words tell something about the sub- 
jects of these sentences, Mary ? The verbs of the sentences. 
Wliat might we call such verbs, Jane ? Telling words. Yes, 
Jane, but in grammar we call them Predicates. (2) What 



184 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

is a predicate, Olive ? Jane ? Eoy ? (3) The boys may write 
the subjects on page 10 of your readers, and the girls the 
predicates. 

The " Modifiek " Concept. — (1) Sentences such as 
Cold water quenches thirst, Blue-bells always please Mary, 
Do you hear the noisy wagons ? may be used. When atten- 
tion has been called to the subjects, predicates, and objects 
or attributes, the teacher asks. Which word describes the 
subject of sentence 1, Peter? The object of sentence 3, 
Jacob? The predicate of sentence 2, Charles? (2) Wliat 
might we call words which describe or qualify or explain 
other words in a sentence, ISTellie ? We might call them 
explaining words. Yes, Nellie, but grammarians call them 
Modifiers, or Adjuncts, because they are joined to words 
which they modify. What is an adjunct, Mary? Since 
some of these explanatory words are adjectives and others 
adverbs, what kind of adjuncts might we call them, Charles ? 
We might call them adjective adjuncts and adverb adjuncts. 
Yes, Charles, but the longer word adverbial adjunct is used 
for adverb adjunct. Mary, what is an adjective adjunct? 
What is an adverbial adjunct, Harry? (3) Please open 
your readers on page 15, and look for the adverbial modi- 
fiers and the adjective modifiers. Kame the adjective modi- 
fiers, Harry ? !N^ame the adverbial modifiers, Mary ? 
Which parts of these sentences have adjective modifiers, 
Kate ? Adverbial modifiers, John ? 

Phrases and Clauses as Modifiers. — (1) Sentences 
such as The English people are patriots. The people of 
England are patriots, The people who live in England are 
patriots, should be written under each other on the board 
and numbered. The teacher asks. What words in sentence 2 
serve the same purpose as the word English in sentence 1, 
Claude ? The words " of England." Does this expression 
have a subject or a predicate, Harry ? No. Such an expres- 
sion is called a Phrase. What is a phrase, Mabel ? Since 
^^ of England " takes the place of " English/' what may we 



GRAMMAR 185 

call it, John? An adjective adjunct of people. Which 
expression in sentence 3 also serves the same purpose, 
Maude ? The expression " who live in England." Whj 
is this expression a sentence, John ? Because it has both 
subject and predicate. A sentence which is part of a sen- 
tence is called a clause. May only words be adjective 
adjuncts, John ? Adjective adjuncts may be words, phrases, 
and clauses. (2) Please find such modifiers on page 10 of 
your reader. (Lessons on adverbial modifiers should follow.) 
The " Prepositioit " Concept. — The first lesson on 
prepositions should be put off until the class has had sev- 
eral lessons on pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, 
predicates, and objects. As an apj)erceptive preparation for 
the first preposition lesson the class should be taught by 
means of illustrations that what one thing has to do with 
another is termed " relation," and that the word " govern " 
means to cause something to behave in a certain way. When 
these preparations have been made, there ought to be no 
difficulty. (1) Which underscored words in the sentences 
on the board express the relation between the predicate and 
a following noun, Ralph ? The words in, into, from, under, 
over, and through. Betw^een which words does in show 
relation? Into? From? Under? Through? (2) Chil- 
dren, because these relation words must be placed before 
nouns, or other w^ords amounting to nouns, they are called 
Prepositions, meaning placed before. What is a preposi- 
tion, Elmer ? A preposition is a word which shows relation 
between other words in a sentence. (3) Please step to the 
board with your readers, and write the prepositions which 
you can find on page 13. Before and after each preposition, 
write the words between which the preposition shows rela- 
tion. (The class of average ability can soon be led to real- 
ize that prepositions show relation between other parts of 
speech besides verbs and nouns. That English prepositions 
require the noun which follows, or the equivalent, to be in 
the objective case, can best be taught by using pronouns in 



186 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

the illustrations, because these differ more in spelling than 
nouns; but these lessons must of course be deferred until 
the "case" concept has been taught.) 

The " Case " Concept. — Three short sentences like the 
following should be written under each other on the board 
and numbered : I like flowers, James likes mj roses, James 
likes me. The words I, my, and me should be underscored. 
(1) Which word is the subject of sentence 1, ISTell? The 
word I. Which word in sentence 2 denotes whose roses 
James likes ? The word my. What is the w^ord me in sen- 
tence 3, Peter ? It is the object of likes. Do the words I, 
my, and me mean the same person or different persons. 
Miles? The same person. Why, then, are the words not 
spelled alike, George? To show that the same person is 
the subject in the first sentence, the owner in the next, and 
the object in the third. (2) Children, this difference in 
spelling is called Case. What is case, Calvin? Case is 
difference in spelling used for subjects, owners, and objects 
in sentences. What case might we call I, children, just 
because it is the subject ? The subject case. Yes, John, but 
it is usually called the !N'ominative case. I will write the 
word. Please spell it, Jennie. Who can define the ISTomi- 
native case? The nominative case is the spelling of sen- 
tence subjects. Can you say the same thing in other words, 
Mary ? James ? Peter ? What might we call the " my," 
just because it denotes the o^vner or possessor, Jane ? The 
owner case, or the possessor case. Yes, or as it is commonly 
called, the Possessive case. I will write it. James, please 
define the possessive case. ^Tiat case might we call " me," 
Miles ? The object case. Yes, but the longer word Objec- 
tive is commonly used. Define the objective case, John. 
(3) For deductive drill the class may be asked to find sen- 
tences with I, my, and me on any page of their reader, and 
to exercise them in defining. 

The next lesson should be o;iven with sentences containino^ 



GRAMMAR 187 

we, ours, and us. The six words sliould then be written on 
the board in two columns as follows, and committed : 

Singular Plural 

Nom. I Nom. We 

Poss. My or Mine Poss. Our or Ours 

Obj. Me Obj. Us 

All the declensions should be taught in the same way, 
one after the other, and thoroughly committed for ready use 
in parsing. Much deductive work should be done at the 
board and with the readers. 

The " Ten^se '' CoI^^CEPT. — The construction of declen- 
sions paves the way for conjugations. The " time-forms,'' 
or tenses, should be constructed first of all. And since the 
time-forms of " am " and " have '' serve as helps in the 
time-phrases of all other verbs, and those of " am " also 
pave the way for " voice," these words might as well be 
taught at once. (1) The first tense lesson may be taught 
with the following short numbered sentences written under 
each other on the blackboard. I am ready, I was ready, I 
will be ready. The words am, was, and will be, should be 
underscored. The teacher asks. Which words in the sen- 
tences on the board enable us to know the time of the fact 
expressed, Mary ? The words am, was, and will be. Which 
of these words denotes present time, Roy? The word am. 
What times are denoted by the words was and will he. Amy ? 
The word was denotes past time, and the words will be 
future time. (2) Children, this difference in word-forms 
denoting difference of time in verbs is called Tense. What 
is tense, Maude ? ^AHiat tense is am, John ? Was, Kate ? 
Will be, Harry ? What is present tense, Eoy ? Past tense, 
Mary ? Future tense, John ? 

The Person and E'umber of Verbs. — The next step to 
take is to change the subjects of the sentences on the board 
from I to thou, he, we, you, and they, making the necessary 
changes in the verb-forms. The teacher must carefully dis- 



188 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

tinguisli these changes in the verb-forms of any tense as 
person and number, and not " tense." The three tenses thus 
constructed should be thoroughly committed for ready use 
in parsing. (3) The usual recognition- work with readers 
must of course be connected with these lessons. 

The first three tenses of " have " should now be taught 
in the same way. These lessons pave the way for the present 
perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses of " am " 
and " have." The teacher's rule should be to make haste 
slowly. 

The " Mood " Cowcept. — The first " mood " lessons, 
like all other first lessons in grammar, must be taught by 
means of simple and suggestive illustrations. (1) The fol- 
lowing illustrations, for example, may be written on the 
board under each other and numbered. Hoy is ready ; Roy 
may, can, or must be ready; Roy, be ready; To be ready; 
Being ready. The words is, may be, be, to be, and being, 
should be underscored. The teacher asks. In which expres- 
sion on the board is a truth stated as a fact or not doubt- 
fully, James ? In the first one. How is the same thought 
stated :n the second sentence, Mary ? It is stated as possible 
or necessary. What is the third statement, John ? It is a 
command. How do the fourth and fifth statements differ 
from the first three, Robert ? They are not sentences — they 
have no subjects. True, Robert, and for that reason these 
verb-forms have neither number nor person. (2) Children, 
this difference in verb-forms denoting certainty, uncertainty, 
command, and no subjects, is called verb-manner, or verb 
mood, or simply " Mood." Mary, what might we call the 
mood or manner of a verb used in stating or asserting facts, 
as in sentence 1 ? Perhaps we might call it the stating or 
asserting mood. Yes, Mary, but it is usually called the 
Indicative mood. What is the indicative mood of a verb, 
John ? Kate, what might we call the mood of a verb used to 
state a possibility or necessity rather than a fact, as in sen- 
tence 2 ? The possibility or necessity mood ? Yes, Kate, 



GRAMMAR 189 

but grammar writers have agreed to call it the Potential 
mood, which means the same thing. Those who think they 
can define the potential mood may raise hands. Try it, 
John. In the same way the Imperative, Conditional and 
Infinitive moods are to he taught, care being taken to 
explain the difference between the " to " infinitive and the 
'^ ing " infinitive. 

After this first mood lesson, " am " and " have " should 
be completely conjugated. The teacher should not attempt 
too much of this work in any lesson. N^othing that has once 
been learned should be allowed to be forgotten. The teacher 
should try hard to make these lessons thoroughly lovable. 

When " am " and " have '' have been mastered, a number 
of regular verbs should be completely conjugated in the 
active voice. 

The Voice Concept. — (1) The first "voice" lesson in 
grammar may be taught with, I love my friends, I am loved 
by my friends. The teacher may proceed as follows: 
Which word is the subject of both sentences, James ? The 
word I. In what tense are both predicates, Ellen ? In the 
present tense. If both predicates are in the present tense, 
why are they not alike, John? The first predicate repre- 
sents the subject as the doer, the second predicate does not. 

(2) Yes, John, this difference may be expressed by saying 
that the first predicate is " active," and the other " passive," 
or not active. And because we use the voice to express this 
difference, putting stress on " am " in the second sentence, 
this difference itself is called Voice. What may we call the 
voice of love in sentence 1, James ? The active voice. And 
what do we mean by the active voice of a verb, Jane ? That 
the verb denotes the subject as acting. What may we call 
the voice of " am loved," Eoy ? The passive voice. Define 
passive voice, James. Please conjugate love in the present 
tense, active voice, John. E'ow write it on the board. 
Mary, conjugate love in the present tense, passive voice. 

(3) The whole class may now be sent to the board, and 



190 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

drilled in conjugating regular verbs in both voices of the 
present tense. 

After this first " voice " lesson, a number of regular 
verbs should be completely conjugated in both voices, and 
the class should be made to see that the passive voice is 
always formed by adding the perfect participle to the " am " 
forms of all tenses, and that the " am " forms may be called 
" neuter," meaning " neither " active nor passive. This 
work should be divided up into many lessons, and much 
review work, together with parsing and analyzing of simple 
sentences found in the readers or invented by the teacher, 
should accompany the conjugating lessons. The teacher 
should try his best to make the lessons lovable. 

Regular and Irkegular Verbs. — (1) The first lesson 
on this difference in verbs should be taught with short sen- 
tences like James laughed and James sang. In what tense 
are laughed and sang, Mabel ? They are both in the past 
tense. How is the past tense formed in laughed, Grace? 
By adding ed to the present. (2) Yes, Grace, and this is 
the usual or regular way of forming the past tense. What 
kind of verbs might we therefore call such verbs, class ? 
Regular verbs. What is a regular verb, John ? What kind 
of a verb might we call sang, Ellen ? A not regular verb, I 
suppose. Yes, an irregular verb, Ellen. (3) Please take 
your readers and record all the irregular verbs on page 20, 
girls. The boys may record the regular verbs. 

Prin-cipal Parts of Verbs. — Special lessons on prin- 
cipal parts of verbs should not be attempted until the class 
understands the conjugating process pretty fully, and has 
acquired a good deal of skill in conjugating verbs com- 
pletely. To make it possible for pupils to conjugate any 
verb completely, correctly, and confidently without a 
teacher's supervision, it is absolutely necessary to know the 
laws with which grammarians conform in conjugating all 
verbs. In other words, the time comes when the gTammar 
pupil should know the so-called " Principal Parts '' of 



GRAMMAR 191 

verbs, and their use in building conjugations. (1) Some 
verb, let us say ^^ prove," should be completely conjugated on 
the board or on paper. The teacher should ask the pupils to 
mark all the tenses in v^hich prove occurs with the figure 1, 
those in which proving occurs with the figure 2, and those 
in which proved occurs with the figiure 3. The pupil should 
then be required to state what he has discovered, namely, 
in which tenses the present indicative prove, the present 
participle proving, and the perfect participle proved, occur. 
These words should then be called " Principal Parts," the 
reason for which the pupil has learned. (2) Other verbs, 
and among them irregular verbs, should then be treated in 
the same way, until by inductive comparison the pupil dis- 
covers the law of using principal parts in conjugating verbs. 
(3) Many verbs should now be conjugated in obedience to 
law, and explained by the pupils. 

For complete emancipation from the teacher the pupils 
should be required to commit very thoroughly the principal 
parts of those irregular, verbs which, as the teacher should 
know, are most likely to occur in the language work of the 
years in question. 

Comparisons. — Long before all the verb-work just out- 
lined can be completed special lessons in comparing adjec- 
tives and adverbs are appropriate. The method used in 
teaching the principal parts of verbs should be followed. 
(1) The lessons should begin with lists of " er " adjectives, 
followed by " more and most, less and least " adjectives, 
and then by " irregular " adjectives. The same course 
should be taken with adverbs. The endings, etc., express- 
ing quality-degrees should be marked, and the terms degree, 
positive, comparative, superlative, and comparison intro- 
duced and defined. (2) The pupils should be made to see 
that " er and est " is the law for adjectives of one syllable, 
but that many adjectives of one syllable, like good, are 
irregular. The irregular adjectives in common use must 
be thoroughly committed. (3) Adjectives and adverbs 



192 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

occurring in reading lessons and language work should be 
noticed and explained. 

EuLEs AND Relation. — The rales of grammar, just like 
concepts and inflections, should be taught by means of 
illustrations. Take, for example, the rule of agreement for 
relative pronouns. (1) The sentence, ^^ He who runs may 
read," may be written on the board. The teacher asks. 
Which word is the antecedent of the relative who, in the 
sentence on the board, Jacob? The word he. What is 
the gender of he, James? The Person? The number? 
Since who stands for the same man as he, what should be 
true of who, Mary? The person, number, and gender of 
who should be the same. (2) Yes, Mary, and this is 
always true of relative pronouns and their antecedents. 
Please state this truth as a rule, Jacob. Pelative pronouns 
agree with their antecedents in gender, person, and number. 
(3) The rule thus discovered must always be used in 
parsing relatives. 

Elementary Passing. — (1) Beginners can not be ex- 
pected to parse a word completely until they have learned 
all the properties belonging to the part of speech to be 
parsed. When, in parsing a word, the beginner can not 
think of all the properties that he has learned, let us say 
the case of a noun, the teacher must come to his rescue with 
a question. (2) The beginner should usually be required 
to give his reason for every statement he makes in parsing, 
as, Run is a verb, because it expresses action; it is an 
irregular verb, because its past tense is not formed by 
adding d or ed; etc. This mode of procedure is not only 
a valuable exercise in deductive reasoning, but it also makes 
it impossible for the pupil to forget any concept which he 
has learned by induction, and helps him to think such con- 
cepts more and more perfectly. Por both reasons, this 
method keeps the parsing process from becoming " guess 
work" and "mechanical memory." (3) The time thus 
used is considerable, but the culture-results justify the 
method. 



GRAMMAR 193 

Elementary Analysis. — (1) The sentences to be 
analyzed by beginners should at first be free from all 
abstruse relations and anomalies. (2) When a sentence is 
to be analyzed, the j^npil should state first of all what kind 
of a sentence it is. After that he should name the simple 
subject of the principal clause and state how this subject 
is modified. He should proceed the same way with the 
predicate, object, or attribute of the principal clause. Then, 
if there are clauses among the modifiers, these should be 
treated the same way. If there happen to be independent 
words or connecting words, the fact must be stated. This 
method of analyzing is called simple or synthetic analysis, 
and is easier because it is more mechanical than progressive 
or analytic analysis (see " Advanced Analysis ''). (3) The 
teacher should always be sure that the pupil uses such terms 
as simple, complex, compound, declarative, imperative, 
clause, etc., intelligently. (4) The sentential relation of 
words may be interestingly exhibited to the eye by means of 
line-systems known as Diagrains. The grammatical dia- 
gram is a " skeleton picture " of a sentence. As a picture 
it is interesting; as a skeleton it suggests compositional 
relations, and is therefore quite effective as a teaching- 
means. Pupils may be required to offer diagrams as evi- 
dence of lesson preparations. Such an exhibit takes very 
little of the pupil's time, and is quite effective. For the 
same reason, namely, because the diagram is a time-saving 
skeleton, and also because its use pleases the eye, it may 
be used for blackboard recitations. However, as a skeleton 
the diagram loses its suggestive effectiveness as soon as it 
becomes too complicated for the memory. In that event 
the diagram becomes a curtain hung between the pupil's 
mind and the compositional relations to be thought. To 
make this blunder with beginners in grammar is to defeat 
the very purpose of teaching. Except as a time-saving 
device in preparing lessons for the teacher's eye, and for 
blackboard recitations, the complex diagram is a stumbling 
block even to the higher classes. 
13 



194 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Syntax. — Grammatical errors in the language of the 
playground and the school room should not be allowed to 
pass unnoticed. The more the pupil knows of pronouns, 
tenses, moods, rules, etc., the more exact should be his 
conversations, recitations, compositions, etc. This is the 
only worthy standard of perfection for the grammar class. 

Book Grammar 

The special purposes of text-book courses in gTammar are 
to perfect the work attempted in the preparatory course, 
to cover more ground, and to exercise the mind on harder 
tasks. 

Definitions. — The pupil must now be required to define 
more completely not only what he has already learned, but 
also all new acquisitions. The teacher should be less and 
less satisfied with incomplete conceptions and with faulty 
statements. 

Inflections. — Declensions, conjugations, and compari- 
sons, should now be perfected in the pupiFs understanding, 
and committed into perfect habits. 'New ground should 
be covered, and harder tasks mastered. 

Rules of Relation. — The pupil must now be required to 
think the compositional relation of Avords more completely. 
The teacher should be less and less satisfied with faulty 
conceptions and faulty statements of rules. Exceptions to 
rules should now be noticed and explained. In the high 
school the pupil should begin to become acquainted with 
the grammar of the literary masters. The time should 
come, let its say in the J^ormal school, when grammar be- 
comes the indispensable handmaid of literary exposition. 

Advanced Parsing. — To serve its purposes effectively, 
advanced parsing should be systematic, rapid and signifi- 
cant. 

System. — The advanced pupil should be required to 
follow some definite order in parsing each part of speech. 
When, for example, a noun is parsed, the order to be fol- 



GRAMMAR 195 

lowed is kind, gender, person, number, case, and rule. The 
order suggested by the text-book in use is usually the most 
convenient. With such definite parsing-order in his mind 
the pupil is able to think more quickly of everything that 
should be said of any word. 

Rapidity. — The " lumbering pace " with which advanced 
grammar pupils are often allowed to parse a sentence is 
not only a criminal waste of time, but also a wretched 
mental exercise. To train boys and girls to be alert and 
quick in thinking thoughts that must be thought correctly is 
to fit them better for this hustling, bustling world of to-day. 
To this end, it is not enough to follow definite parsing 
tracks, as just explained, the pupil must also be allowed 
to parse the word completely without giving reasons for his 
statements. When, for example, the advanced pupil parses 
the verb rcui in ^^ He ran,'' he must be trained to say with- 
out serious hesitation, Ran is an irregular, intransitive 
A^erb, of the active voice, indicative mood, third person, and 
singular number, according to rule, etc. If, in this rapid 
deductive procedure the pupil makes mistakes of judgment 
or of statement, these must of course be corrected. 

Significance. — In the high school it is quite a serious 
waste of time to parse completely every word of a sentence. 
This is true also of classes in the exposition of the English 
classics. In both cases the teacher should ask without loss 
of time just what he wants to know about a word. By 
this '^ eclectic " mode of procedure the teacher will accus- 
tom his pupils to look for important things in the study 
of the lesson, and the recitation will be full of energy, and 
not a " dead grind." 

Advanced Analysis. — Advanced analysis should become 
more and more logical, rapid, and significant. 

Logical Analysis. — The sentence to be analyzed by 
advanced classes should become more and more complex. 
After stating what kind of a sentence it is, the pupil should 
be required to state the whole, or " logical " subject, and 



196 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

the whole or logical predicate, thus resolving the thought 
expressed by the sentence into the two necessary mental 
attitudes of thought. The logical subject should then be 
further analyzed into its simple subject and the modifiers. 
The clauses modifying the simple subject should be 
analyzed before the logical predicate is attacked. The 
logical predicate should be treated just like the subject. 
Independent elements and connective elements should be 
logically explained. This logical analysis of a sentence, 
consisting, as it does, of analysis followed by analysis, has 
been called analytic or progressive analysis, and is harder 
because it is not mechanical or compositional but relational. 
For this very reason it is also best as a mental exercise for 
older boys and girls. 

Eapidity. — "V^Tiile the pupil is learning the concepts 
attaching to the technical terms used in grammatical 
analysis, no attempt should be made to hurry him in 
analyzing. When, however, he has fully and firmly 
acquired these concepts, he should be required to reason 
as rapidly as he can without being confused in mind and 
slovenly in language. 

SiGNiFiCAT^CE. — (1) lu the analysis of a master-piece, 
where the purpose is to help the student understand phrases, 
clauses, etc., as effective literary vehicles, the mind of the 
class must be concentrated on those word-relations which 
are really sigTiificant. This end must be accomplished by 
means of well-directed questions, thus compelling the pupil 
to think just what is wanted instead of wasting time by 
mechanically going through the whole analysis. This 
" eclectic analysis " serves as a stimulus to careful study, 
makes the mind alert in class, and is far more interesting 
than routine completeness. (2) The combination of 
" eclectic parsing '' with " eclectic analysis " is termed 
" grammatical description, and consists of attention to the 
most significant properties and relations of each word or at 
least the important words of a sentence. In this process 



GRAMMAR 197 

the selection of significant features is so choice that the 
process should be used only with classes of very mature 
minds and attainments. 

Relation of Parsing to Analysis. — (1) Parsing fur- 
nishes concepts and technical terms employed in analysis. 
The noun, for example, paves the way for the substantive 
phrase, the adjective and adverbs for the corresponding 
adjuncts, tense for temporal clauses, relative pronoun for 
relative clauses, etc. (2) On the other hand, many words 
can not be completely parsed until the sentence has been 
analyzed. For example, the word which is a noun in one 
sentence may be an adjective in another, according to its 
office in the sentence. So, too, the gender, person, and 
number of relative pronouns can be known only by dis- 
covering the antecedent, and the case of nouns or pronouns 
can be known only by discovering the office of the words 
as parts of the sentence. (3) The parsing which prepares 
for analysis should, accordingly, be emphasized with be- 
ginners. To make sure that older pupils, of whom we 
have a right to expect as much, can say all that should be 
said in parsing words, they should analyze before they 
parse. 

Advanced Syntax. — (1) So great is the number of those 
fine distinctions called the properties of the parts of speech 
and the compositional relations of words used in sentences, 
that the process of learning these is sure to be accompanied 
by much confusion of impressions. When this confusion 
begins to disappear, and the pupil has acquired considerable 
ability in declining, conjugating, comparing, parsing, and 
analyzing, he should receive special training in examining 
sentences to ascertain their grammatical correctness or the 
contrary, that is, to determine deductively, or according to 
rule, whether the syntax or construction is grammatically 
true or false. (2) The sentences to be examined should 
of course be specially prepared, the true being mixed with 
the false, as a stimulating test. Advanced text-books on 



198 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

grammar generally contain collections of such prepared 
sentences. Among the many things for which the pupil 
must look are capitals, punctuation marks, number, person, 
tense, mood, collocations, etc. In these advanced syntax 
lessons pupils should not only be required to state whether 
the sentence examined is correct, or in what respect it is 
incorrect, but also why. If these syntax lessons were pushed 
for all they are worth as a habit, we should have very 
little of that wretched English which is so commonly heard 
in conversation and so painfully abundant in the black- 
board recitations of the compositions of the ordinary school. 
When the grammar teacher fails to push these lessons to 
their legitimate end, he fails as a practical teacher. 

Preparation of Lessons. — Without thorough prepara- 
tion of the lessons by the teacher and the pupil, grammar 
recitations are likely to be dismal failures. 

The Teacher's Preparations. — Apart from the aca- 
demic and professional training which makes it possible 
for any one to teach grammar with any prospects of 
success, the teacher must make daily preparations. In 
elementary grammar the necessity of apperceptive sequence 
is so pronounced that the teacher can not hope to succeed 
at all unless he thinks himself into " the learner's shoes " 
every day, and provides himself with the illustrations he 
will need for each daily step. In order to inspire confidence 
and accomplish artistic results, the teacher of advanced 
grammar classes must be easily the master of every situa- 
tion that may arise in the course of the recitation. 

The Pupil's Preparations. — (1) Even beginners 
should be required to record and repeat what was learned 
in class. (2) Book-classes should be required to decline, 
conjugate, compare, parse, analyze, construct, etc., accord- 
ing to assignment. To save time, and to exercise the pupil 
in symbolic thinking, systems of abbreviations may occa- 
sionally be substituted for written parsing in these lesson 
preparations, but such preparations should always be in- 



GRAMMAR 199 

spected bj the teaclier, to make sure that the pupil has 
worked " in good faith." Subject to the same cautions, the 
use of diagrams should be permitted in the pupiFs prepara- 
tion of sentence analyses. 

Grammar Recitations. — The recitation is a necessary 
stimulus to study; it is also the teacher's necessary oppor- 
tunity to exercise faculties of the pupil's mind which would 
otherwise remain unused, and to teach the class what would 
otherwise not be learned at the time. 

Beginn-ers. — (1) With beginners, as explained, the 
purposes of the recitation must be accomplished by means 
of suggestive black-board illustrations and the reading books 
in use. (2) The recitation itself will consist essentially 
of questions and answers. The questions must be organ- 
ized on strictly apperceptive lines, the teacher thus causing 
the learners to think definitions, rules, etc., in their own 
words as much as possible. (3) For the deductive work 
which should " cap the climax " of every recitation, the 
class should often be sent to the board with the reading 
books. Simple diagrams may be useful. 

Book-Classes. — (1) A part of the "book" grammar 
class should at once be sent to the board, some to define, 
others to decline, conjugate, compare, parse, analyze or 
construct, as the case may be. Some parsing and analyzing 
should always be fully written out as an exercise in language 
and connected thinking. Abbreviations in parsing, and 
diagrams in analyzing, may be substituted as a training in 
symbolic thinking and as interesting variations or time- 
savers. (2) The part of the class not sent to the board 
should do the same kind of work orally. The parsing and 
analysis, especially with the most advanced classes, may 
become quite " eclectic," for reasons already explained. 
(3) The third step in the recitation is the reading of work 
produced on the board. This reading should be vigorous 
and attractive. Corrections and instruction will be neces- 
sary supplements. The whole class should be expected to 



200 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

liear every reader and all instructions. Happy mood, to- 
gether with a full and pleasing voice, and perfect courtesy, 
should be the teacher's pride and the pupil's joy. (4) 
The recitation should close with lesson-assignments, coupled 
with such remarks and suggestions as will serve the pur- 
poses in hand. The teacher should be sure that his assign- 
ments are in harmony with all the circumstances that may 
modify results. 

Value of Grammar 

Grammar is a most effective means to some of the most 
desirable ends in view in education. 

Mental Exercise. — (1) There is no larger apperceptive 
subject than that of grammar in the whole range of school 
studies. This makes it a most valuable exercise in connected 
inductive and deductive reasoning. (2) So fine are the 
distinctions to be made in both these processes of reasoning 
in grammar that the will must be combined most strenuously 
with the judgment. (3) The reasoning process can be most 
admirably combined with memory in constructing defi- 
nitions, declensions, conjugations, comparisons, and rules, 
and in using these in parsing, analyzing, and constructing 
sentences. 

Correlations. — (1) By furnishing sentences that are 
mechanically correct, grammar paves the way for rhetoric, 
whose further purpose it must be to beautify the furnished 
sentences and make them otherwise effective. (2) Gram- 
mar is " the mechanic " employed by " the logician " in 
stating truth. (3) Thought itself — the pupil's own thought 
— becomes the object of attention in the logical analysis 
of sentences. For this reason grammar is the " ante-room " 
to psychology. (4) The grammar of the mother-tongue 
is the natural stepping-stone to the grammar of foreign 
languages and philology. (5) It is impossible to compre- 
hend and fully appreciate the literary masters without a 
training in subtle sentence analysis. This subtle analysis 



GRAMMAR 201 

should, however, never degenerate into " impertinent and 
trifling attention to elements employed as material or tex- 
ture," to the " neglect of the structural form " which makes 
the master's work "sl work of art." A poem that is to 
be loved for its own sake should therefore never be used 
as lesson-material in grammatical analysis. 

Practical Worth. — The critical attitude of mind which 
a proper study of grammar develops into perfect habit is 
a gain to perfect English both in speaking and in writing. 
This training is the indispensable evidence of culture. 

Teachers of Grammar. — The difficulty of grammar as 
a study, coupled with the professional skill which is essen- 
tial to success in teaching grammar, and the manifold values 
of grammar, makes thorough training in grammar the in- 
dispensable prerequisite in grammar teachers. 

The History of Grammar 

It is only through a knowledge of the history of grammar 
that its great importance can be fully realized. 

Genesis of Grammar. — (1) In order that the language of 
a people may be a perfect national vehicle of thought there 
must be words enough to express all ideas, enough flexi- 
bility of form in the words to express those distinctions 
now called the properties of the parts of speech, and the 
relation of words in sentences must be denoted by expres- 
sive collocations. The second of these necessities of 
language as a perfect vehicle of thought has given rise 
to word-adaptations called inflections, while the third calls 
for expressive sequence of words in sentence construction. 
Where sequence of words has made it possible, without 
producing ambiguity, modem Aryan languages have be- 
come somewhat less inflectional than the classic Greek and 
Roman, but these possibilities are obviously about exhausted 
in such languages as the English. Words have also been 
substituted for some otherwise necessary initial and termi- 
nal syllables, as in conjugations and comparisons, hut these 



202 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

substitutions must then he counted as the real equivalents. 
With the exception of those phrase-differences known as 
idioms, the Aryan languages resemble each other very much 
in word-sequence. (2) Among the highly organized Aryan 
languages are the Hindu, the Greek, and the Eoman. 
Hindu grammar became an exact science '' in immediate 
connection with the study and interpretation of their sacred 
books, and served the main purpose of explaining and main- 
taining in purity of form the ancient or classical language, 
the Sanskrit, which had ceased to be the language of the 
people and was regarded as the peculiar property of the 
priestly class." Among the Greeks the beginnings of gram- 
mar are found in the works of tlie philosophers. The parts 
of speech, for example, were partly identified and defined 
by Aristotle. It was, however, not until the second cen- 
tury before Christ that Alexandrian scholars developed a 
complete system of Greek Grammar. In preparing correct 
texts of the Greek classics, especially of Homer, these 
scholars found that the manuscripts differed, and then 
determined the correct form by comparison with the 
language of Homer. The Komans left the science of 
grammar largely to Greek scholars. 

Grammar Writers. — Zenodotus and Aristarchus were 
the great grammarians of Alexandria. The little hand-book 
of Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of Aristarchus, was ^' the basis 
of all the Greek grammars down almost to modem times," 
and, through its virtual use by Chrysoloras and the Renais- 
sance scholars, it determined the traditions of school gram- 
mars for all European languages. • Terence, a contemporary 
of Cicero, is famous for his reports concerning the materials 
of the older Latin and Italic dialects. An introduction to 
Lilly's Latin Grammar, by John Colet, published in 1510, 
and the exclusive standard in England for more than 
three centuries, was the first attempt at English grammar. 
In 1586, William BuUokar wrote an exclusively English 
grammar. " In 1758, Bishop Lowth published his cele- 



GRAMMAR 203 

brated grammar, an excellent work from which Lindley 
Murray drew most of his materials. Murray published 
his first grammar in 1795, and his abridgement in 1Y97, 
a work which has been extensively used in this country and 
in England. This popular work was largely derived from 
Lowth and Priestly, and owed its popularity to its practical 
adaptation to the school-room." The latest grammars are 
splendid contributions to the newer pedagogy. Among 
them may be mentioned West, Carpenter, Whitney, Lyte, 
Welsh, Keed and Kellogg, etc. 

Highly Honored. — From the time of its first introduc- 
tion, grammar has occupied an important place in schools. 
The Eenaissance made grammar a stern necessity, and the 
long domination of humanism in education kept " the first 
of the seven liberal arts " first in honor down to modern 
times. America is not far behind in its respectful attitudes 
toward formal grammar. It has long been looked upon as 
the disciplinary study 'par excellence, not only in elemen- 
tary, but also in secondary education. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Educational Review, March, 1897. 

2. A Modern English Grammar. Buehler. 



CHAPTER VII 

ARITHMETIC 

The Stuff of Arithmetic 

We have seen that the stuff of any science determines 
the mental action. In a final analysis the subject or stuff 
of arithmetic is "numbers." To deal effectively with 
them, numbers must of course be expressed. Computa- 
tions can be carried on with numbers that can be expressed. 
Inductive reasoning with numbers, number language, and 
number operations, leads to generic truths. Applied to life 
these generic truths give rise to exercises in the number 
operations and to arguments called problems. 

Numbers.— The " how-many-ness " of " things " is famil- 
iarly termed " Xumber." A number may be known or 
expressed, as the whole number five, the fraction number 
one-thirteenth, or the denominate ten cents. A number 
may be unknown or unexpressed, as we indicate by saying 
X times five. Known numbers is the special subject of 
arithmetic. 

The Expression of Numbers. — We may speak numbers, 
as when we say eleven, or write numbers, as when we use 
figures like 9 or letters like I and X to denote the number 
nine, or we may read what has been written. Thus arise 
counting, notation, and numeration. 

Counting. — To count may mean to find how many, as 
in " Count your blessings." It may mean to proceed men- 
tally, orally, or manually from a lower to a higher number 
always adding one at a time, as in " Count a hundred," or 
from a higher to a lower number, as in " Count a hundred 
backward." We may count by two, three, four, etc., in 
which case the process is equivalent to multiplying or 
dividing. 
204 



ARITHMETIC 205 



^Notation. — To " notate '^ is to express nmnbers by 
means of "sight symbols." The necessity of expressing 
and dealing with large numbers both in disciplinary and 
practical arithmetic makes an effective system of notation 
very important. To be effective with large numbers and 
number operations the notation dare not be clumsy nor 
confusing. (1) The system now in vogue is the Arabic, 
or Decimal system. It employs only ten characters (1, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0), and is therefore a very simple alpha- 
bet. x\ny figure moved one place to the left is thus multi- 
plied by ten, as in 55. The process is simple and powerful. 
The Koman system of notation is also a decimal system, but 
letters (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, etc.) 
are substituted for the Arabic figures. It is evidently 
cumbersome and confusing, and is used only for special 
purposes, as in chapter heads and outlines. (3) The pro- 
posed Duodecimal system would have some advantages over 
the Decimal system. Two characters could be added to the 
Arabic characters without making notation, numeration, 
tables, and operations even appreciably more cumbersome 
or confusing. Any figure moved one place to the left 
would then be multiplied by twelve instead of ten, thus 
making 55 stand for 65 instead of 55. The reduction of 
common fractions would also be less cumbersome, as any- 
one can try for himself with i, i, i, i, and J.^ The groups 
known as hundreds, thousands, millions, billions, etc., are 
employed to simplify both notation and numeration. 

Numeration. — Inasmuch as numeration is merely the 
reading of the written number, all the perfections of the 
one count for the other. 

Fundamental Operations. — ^We speak of four funda- 
mental operations in arithmetic, and name them addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, and division. Percentage, pro- 
portion, progi-ession, powers, roots, etc., are only combina- 
tions of these four operations. In the final analysis, how- 
ever, all arithmetical processes are varieties in adding and 
subtracting. 



206 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

The Generic Truths of Arithmetic. — Three kinds of 
general truths must be associated with the study of num- 
bers, to make the study really effective. They are defini- 
tions, rules, and principles. (1) The process of defining, 
when strictly based on illustrations of the things to be 
defined, is a necessary exercise in clear thinking. (2) 
Rules make it possible to arrive at results without delay, 
as in decimal divisions or the roots. (3) Principles supply 
rules and thus emancipate from mechanical subjection. 
WTien, for example, it is understood that a fraction may be 
divided either by dividing the numerator or by multiplying 
the denominator, the rule for finding the Greatest Common 
Divisor is evident. 

Exercises. — ^^So great is the value of speed and skill in 
operations on the practical side of arithmetic, that effi- 
ciency requires habit-perfecting exercises in all necessary 
operations. 

Problems. — Arguments in which arithmetic is used are 
familiarly termed Problems. These problems have the 
double purpose of mental training and service. 

Tables. — The multiplication tables are indispensable 
time-savers. The tables of weights and measures are pre- 
requisites of the fundamental operations with weights and 
measures. To slight these tables is to handicap arithmetic. 

The Psychology of Arithmetic 

It will be easy to show that nearly all the peculiarities 
of arithmetic are perceptive adaptations to the stuff to be 
attacked. 

Observation. — (1) Inasmuch as number is the " how- 
many-ness " of ^^ objects," it must of course be thought in 
the concrete through objects, as when five, or one-fourth, 
or a yard, is first thought. (2) dotation and numeration, 
running intO' many figures as it often does, is confusing. 
To avoid this effect in abstract imagination, hundreds, 
thousands, millions, etc., should be introduced by means 



ARITHMETIC 207 

of blocks or boxes named hundreds, thousands, millions, 
etc., all containing the same figures used in the first box. 
(3) To keep figures from falling "out of line,'' and thus 
causing mental confusion, in passing to the left or to the 
right in the fundamental operations, long perpendicular 
lines should be used for a while. (4) The first attack on 
multiplication tables should be made bj explaining illus- 
tratively on the board that they are built by adding two, 
three, four, etc. This attack enables tlie pupil to build the 
tables, thus at the same time appealing to his reasoning 
and to his constructive instincts. It also shows him the 
reason for committing tables as labor-saving formulas. 
Tables of weights and measure must, of course, be taught 
by weighing and measuring. This may be turned into 
"playing store." (5) The first approach to definitions 
should be made through well-selected illustrations, as when 
we teach the denominator and numerator of fractions by 
folding paper into equal parts and using some of these. 
Rules of operation should be approached through working 
examples on the board and asking questions. Principles 
should be approached through apt illustrations. 

Induction. — (1) The "always," or genus, of such num- 
bers as five, one-fourth, or a cent, is most effectively taught 
through observations into which comparison to find likeness 
is purposely introduced^ as when we use not only splints, 
but crayon, paper, strokes, pictures, etc. Taught in this 
way all number concepts soon become perfect mental 
habits. (2) .Repetition, drill, practice, — these are the neces- 
sary things in teaching notation and numeration. Per- 
fect mental habit must be kept in mind as the end in view. 
(3) All rules of operation must of course be developed 
into law or habit by impressive repetition, practice, drill. 
Tables are subject to the same requirement. (4) The apt 
illustrations through which principles are introduced must 
be reinforced by other apt illustrations making for the 
same end, until by skilful marshalling of cases the law 
or principle is reached by the learner. 



208 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Deduction. — Problem working power in arithmetic is 
best developed by compelling the pupil to think the con- 
ditions of the problem so clearly that he can apply arith- 
metical processes logically without confusion or hesitation. 
Apperceptive illustration reinforced by skilful questioning 
is often the most effective supervision. 

Definition of Arithmetic. — Having become acquainted 
both with the stuff and the mental action of arithmetic, we 
conclude with the authors of arithmetic that ^' Arithmetic 
is the science of numbers and the art of computing with 
numbers." 

Courses of Arithmetic 

What number-stuff the pupil in arithmetic should learn 
in successive periods of time is an apperceptive problem. 
How much of it he should be required to get at a time 
depends in part upon the pupil's possibilities and in part 
upon the teacher's resources. How much of the stuff he 
ought to master depends in part upon the requirements of 
culture and in part upon the needs of life. 

Course for Beginners. — (1) The study of numbers 
really begins with the child's first inquiry into the " how- 
many-ness " of things in the world of his senses. (2) So 
strong is the interest of the first five or six school years in 
the how-many-ness of objects, actions, and qualities that 
counting of all sorts commonly becomes an early passion. 
Appeal to the remarkable imitating powers of the child 
and to his vigorous competitive impulse makes it possible 
to teach the fundamental operations, together with the neces- 
sary notation and numeration in a few years. Through 
" playing store " and thus appealing to the dramatic instinct 
a number of weights and measures may be taught before 
the grammar school epoch. (2) To meet the requirements 
of apperception, simple subtraction should be taught in 
connection with addition, and simple division in connection 
with multiplication. Multiplication tables are the time- 
saving necessities in multiplication and division operations. 
Fraction operations should be introduced through corre- 



ARITHMETIC 209 

spending whole number operations, and decimal lessons 
through corresponding common fractions. Exercises and 
problems should always be taught in connection with the 
mastering of weights and measures tables. (3) The num- 
ber-life of the child as he finds it at home and elsewhere 
should be made the background of all work for beginners in 
arithmetic. (4) A text-book meeting the requirements just 
enumerated should be used by beginners from the fourth 
year upwards. It will help to bring the learner into closer 
range with assignments, and serve at the same time as 
progress toward the abstract. 

Course for Grammar Schools. — By appealing to the 
vigorous pugnacity of the average boy in his " teens," and 
by reinforcing this pugnacity with explanations of the 
value of arithmetic as a means to ends in life, the modem 
teacher may cover apperceptively all the ground covered in 
any up-to-date grammar school text-book on arithmetic. 
The course should include common fractions, decimals, 
percentage, proportion, powers, roots, mensuration, etc. 

Higher Courses in Arithmetic. — (1) The high school 
should cover enough gi^ound to serve the purposes of higher 
education. The course should include thorough training 
in the ^^ Metric System," " Commercial Arithmetic," and 
'^ Mensuration " following a year of Geometry. Several 
years of Algebra should precede the final stages of high 
school Arithmetic. The correlation of arithmetic wdth 
algebra and geometry is of the utmost importance to its 
apperceptive perfections. 

TEACHING ARITHMETIC 

The stuff of arithmetic, by determining the mental action 
that is best, determines also what is best in the methods of 
instructing pupils. 

The Methods for Beginners 

The best results are obtained if effective preparations 
have been made for school recitations. 
14 



310 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Objects of the Recitation. — The recitation should pro- 
pose at least three objects: (1) The teaching process should 
lead to that mental action to which the lesson to be studied 
should give rise; (2) the presence of classmates should be 
used effectively to heighten the pleasure which comes from 
well-doing; including that of personality, every appeal of 
the teacher to the mind of the pupil should act as a stimulus 
to study; (3) the recitation should lead to knowledge 
which the pupil could not or would not otherwise acquire. 

Preparations by Beginners in Arithmetic. — (1) As 
a rule, beginners in arithmetic should not be overtaxed with 
preparations for their recitations. They should be taught 
to rely upon Ihemselves, and when help is really needed 
it should usually be given by the teacher rather than by 
schoolmates. (2) Home-work in arithmetic should rarely 
be assigned before the pupil has attained the age of ten 
years. Too much home-work of any kind will deprive 
younger boys and girls of important play and sleep and 
home-life. Then, too, home-help may weaken and confuse 
the child. (3) The text-book used by beginners, say after 
the third year, should be simple in language and rich in 
effective pictures. 

Preparations by the Teacher of Beginners. — (1) The 
modern teacher of beginners in arithmetic will always 
be prepared to proceed apperceptively. To this end he will 
keep in mind the lessons learned and avoid " gap " and 
" shock " in passing from the old to the new. (2) He will 
work harder to capture the heart of the beginner mth arith- 
metic than to cover ground. To this end he will supply 
himself with convenient and interesting materials, and 
cultivate a happy mood. 

The Recitations of Beginners in Arithmetic — The 
dominating purpose of the recitations for beginners in 
arithmetic must ever be to make the right apperceptive 
approaches and to come skilfully to the rescue of the learner 
in mental crises, thus preventing confusion and disgust. 



ARITHMETIC 211 

The following treatment of various lessons will serve as 
illustrations : 

The " Five '' Concept. — (1) How many roses do I 
hold in my hand, James? Four and one. Yes, Five, 
James. (2) Please count the blocks before you, Mildred. 
There are five. Which one of these pencils is five, E"ell? 
It takes them all to make five. (3) Paul, you may find 
five cracks in the floor. 

l^UMBEK ^ames After " Ten.'''' — ^N'umber names like 
fifteen, twenty-one, etc.^ should be introduced as ten and 
five, or fifteen, two tens and one, or twenty-one, etc. This 
is readily accomplished through splints and a long up-and- 
down line on the board. The lesson follows : (1) N'ed, how 
many splints do I hold in my hand ? Nine. Suiting the 
word to the act the teacher says, I will vn-ite nine. Putting 
another splint in his hand, he asks, How many are there 
now, Ralph ? Ten. Please write ten, says the teacher. 
Ralph tries but fails. Without coming to his rescue the 
teacher asks. How many splints do I hold in my left hand, 
class ? Ten. In my right hand, Mary ? Three. Tying 
the ten splints into a bundle, and calling it a " ten " bmidle 
or " one ten,'' the teacher draws a long down-line on the 
board and writes the figure 1 to the left to stand for ^' one 
ten." Where shall I place the figure 3 to stand for the 
splints in my right hand, Karl? To the right of the 
figure 1 on the board. Read the number now, Paul. Ten 
and three. Yes, or thirteen, " thir " coming from three 
and " teen " from ten. Please write ten and two, Frank. 
Ten and one, Anna. How many splints do I hold in my 
left hand, class ? Ten. In my right hand ? E'one. Write 
ten and none, Mary. She gets the 1 to stand for ten, but 
hesitates. At this crisis the teacher comes to the rescue 
by putting zero for " none " to the right of the figure 1. 
The introduction of zero at this critical moment serves as 
an apperceptive approach to all other number names. 
The pupils will write two tens, or twenty, two tens and 



212 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

three or twenty-three, three tens and -^ve, etc., up to nine 
tens and nine almost without help. 

Grube Lesson's. — A German mathematician named 
Grube devised object number-lessons since called " Grube 
Lessons." Professor Seelej has adapted these lessons to 
American needs. To teach a " Four " Grube lesson four 
blocks or other convenient objects may be used. The pupil 
is required to place the blocks according to directions that 
make the lesson an addition-substraction-multiplication- 
division play of great value. All arrangements of the 
blocks are at once recorded with figures, the 4 standing 
first, and the other figures with the signs =, +> — ? X? 
and -f- following. AA^en all the possibilities have been 
developed, the record will look as follows : 

4=1+1+1+1 4—1=3 4=1X4 
4=2+1+1 4—2=2 4=4X1 
4=3 + 1 4 — 3 =1 4=2X2 

4=2+2 4 — 4 =0 

4=1+3 4-v-l=4 

4-2 = 2 
4-4=1 

These Grube lessons make fine busy work. They fill 
figures full of meaning by compelling them to stand for 
objective realities. Then, too, they tend to develop analy- 
tic habit in arithmetic. When the numbers grow larger 
the pupil must take greater and greater care to make no mis- 
takes. This kind of number busy work may, however, be 
overdone, and should not be continued more than a year or 
two, lest it crowd out other important number busy work. 

A " Carrying '' Lesson. — The lessons bn " number 
names '' serve as apperceptive approaches to all operation- 
lessons. By using the long do^vn-lines in addition, " carry- 
ing " is taught concretely without confusion. 



ARITHMETIC 



213 



+ 





2 


5 




6 


9 




4 


3 


1 


^ 


y 



(1) Children, add as I point. Thej say: Three, twelve, 
seventeen. Yes, or what, James ? Ten and seven. Place 
the 7, Mary. What shall we do with the 1, Harry ? Per- 
haps it should be placed above the 2, and added with the 
second column. Yes, Harry ; and we call it " carrying " 
the 1. Add column two, John. Pour, ten, twelve, thir- 
teen. Place 13, ISTell. She places 3 correctly, and, after 
just a little hesitation, finishes with 1 to the left in a new 
column. (2) Other problems with new crises should fol- 
low until the carrying by ten with the down-line suggestion 
has become a perfect habit. (3) These eye-helps should 
not be used longer than necessary. It would delay the 
pupiPs mental passage from the concrete to the abstract. 

A " BoRROw^iNG " Lesson. — The first " borrowing " les- 
son should be just as simple as it can be made, as follows : 



1 = 


10 






4 





6 


9 


1 


5 


6 


3 


¥ 


¥ 







"e 



(1) James, take 3 from 9, and write what remains. James 
puts 6 under 3. 'Now John you may work the rest of the 
problem while we watch. John finds trouble when he 
comes to 5 from 0. The teacher asks what it means to bor- 
row money, etc. Then, suppose ^gure 4 was a friend of 
figure 0, and gave him 1, how much would it be on his side 
of the line, — ^who can tell? Figure 1 to the left is worth 
10 to the right. That is true, James. Please finish the 
subtraction. James finishes with the figure 2, for the 



314 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

borrowed 1 made 4 to be 3 in his mind. (2) Problems 
containing new crises should follow until the " borrowing 
1 " from the left as 10 grows easy with all sorts of problems. 
(3) Speed-drills in adding and subtracting should follow. 
Grube lessons may be used as supplements. 

Multiplication Tables. — The old way of forcing chil- 
dren to commit tables without understanding how to build 
them was cruel^ and cannot be condemned too severely. 
The late experiment of not commiting tables at all has 
proved to be confusion worse confounded. What the child 
needs first of all in mastering a table is instruction — an 
appeal to his understanding. After that the table must be 
built into habit by impressive and quickening repetitions 
that make confusion or hesitation simply impossible. 

(1) What have I put on the board, Marie? The figure 
2. How many times did I write the 2 ? Only once. Yes 
(writing it), 

1X2=2 

2X2 = 4 

2X3=6 

How many 2's did I write above each other here, Ethel? 
Two 2's. What do you get by adding them? 4. How 
much, then, is 2X2, Irene ? Writing it below the 
1 X 2 :=^ 2. Two times two is four. A little more ques- 
tioning and building will enable the learner to complete 
the table by adding 2 all the time. The mental crisis is 
then over, and the habit-building repetitions must begin. 
(2) Please write the table on the board, children. 'Now 
write it backward. (This writing impresses the tables, 
and it can be done readily by simply adding 2 all the time, 
and then by subtracting 2 all the time as additional repe- 
tition). I^ow, Jane, say the table. You try it, Millie. 
(This too can be done by adding and subtracting 2 every 
time, and it helps to quicken table-thinking.) Even this 
will not suffice. He must finally be exercised in answering 



ARITHMETIC 



215 



any " time " without a moment's hesitation or confusion. 
This is the real crisis. It is at this point that invention 
must redeem the pupil from the old-day drudgery. The 
necessary drill can be filled with delight by placing figures 
in a circle, pointing rapidly for answers, and al- /gTgN 
lowing those who miss to be trapped. Much re- Aq ^ 
view of tables already learned is necessary. N^ot ^^2577 
to review is to lose what has been learned or to 
confuse. (3) Tables must of course be used in problems 
as soon as any one is learned. This is their labor-saving, 
time-saving mission, as the class can be made to see by ask- 
ing a boy who knows the tables and one who does not know 
them to add a column of 2's. The first boy will write the 
answer almost at once, the other boy must find the answer 
by much adding. 

A Multiplication- Lesson. — The down-lines are par- 
ticularly helpful to beginners in multiplication. They 
promote the carrying process, and keep the worker from 
becoming confused in placing and adding the pafa:ial 
products. 



(1) 



(2) 







9 


6 


3 


1 








1 


5 









J 


J 


P 





4 


8 


1 


5 


5 




9 


6 


3 


1 






4 


4 


4 


6 


5 






X 





9 


6 


3 


1 










1 


5 





4 


8 


1 


5 


5 





9 


6 


3 


1 






4 


4 


4 


6 


5 






The discovery that three zeros produced by multiplying 
through with zero do not appear in the answer furnishes 
the reason for placing the zero of the multiplier one place 
further to the right, as in the second statement. (1) The 
first lesson should of course be taught by working problems 



316 



MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 



on the board and asking questions or adding instruction. 
(2) Only practice will perfect the process into rule or 
habit. (3) Interesting mechanical and commercial prob- 
lems involving multiplication should follow in abundance. 
A " Division" " Lesson. — The down-lines promote the 
" borrowing " process in division operations, and keep con- 
fusion out of ^^ long division," The same figures as 



5) 



1= 


10 2 


=20 




1 


2 


5 







2 


~5 


^ 



1=10 



5)1 
1 



and 



2 


5 







Y 


¥ 


2 


5 







0(250 



should be used to Introduce " long division " as only another 
way of getting results when the divisor is larger than 12. 
The first lessons should of course be taught by working 
problems, asking questions, and adding instruction. 

Special Speed Drills. — The charge is often made — 
and there are facts in the case — that public schools fail to 
produce speed enough in the art of computing with num- 
bers. What we need is speed drills to remedy the defect. 
(1) Rapid adding is the first necessity. Have children 
add by twos, threes, etc. Later on have them compete with 
each other in adding long columns of figures. (2) E'am- 
ing the sum and difference of two numbers is a very effec- 
tive exercise. In this exercise the teacher speaks two 
numbers like seven and nine, and the pupil says sixteen, 
two. Trapping improves this exercise. (3) The four 
operations can be combined as a speed drill, with trapping 
as a stimulus. In this drill the signs +, — , X? and -f- are 
written across the board, and underneath them in columns 
figures 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., up to 9, or the figure that has been 
mastered in multiplication tables. The teacher points to 
any figure, avoiding remainders in the dividing tasks, and 



ARITHMETIC 



217 



the pupils do what the sign at the head of the coliunn 
requires. 

High Dotation and J^UMERATioisr. — ^When the class has 
become proficient in writing and reading any number ex- 
pressed by means of three figures, as 475, the notation 
groups known as thousands, millions, etc., can be taught 
very quickly and effectively by means of blackboard box- 
pictures in each of which the same figures should be used. 
See the following illustration: (1) Read what I wrote, 
Frank. Four hundred seventy-five. I will write a box 
for the number 



475 



Please read what I wrote in the second box, 



475 



Mary. Four hundred seventy-five. In the third box, 



475 







James. Children, let us call the second box " Thousands," 
and the third box " Millions," just to keep from mixing 
them. I will fill the boxes (doing so while he speaks), 
and Jane mav read 



475 


475 


475 1 



Jane reads correctly. Substituting zero for the 5 in all 
the boxes, the teacher asks some child to read. After that, 
zero can be substituted for the 7 in each box. And finally 
commas must be substituted for the boxes. When com- 
pleted the box pictures will appear as follows: 



218 



MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 



475 


475 


475 


470 


470 


470 


400 


400 


400 



400 



400 , 400 



(2) The box-pictures appeal to tlie child's imagination, 
and help to keep the many figures from getting mixed in 
the mind of the child. The same figures are used in all the 
boxes, for then the box-name is the only new thing to be 
learned, and this makes the apperception easy. The sub- 
stitution of zeros is a necessary apperceptive lesson in the 
use of zeros. The abstract comma is finally substituted for 
the concrete box because tlie only reason for the box was to 
pave the way for the abstract, and because the commas take 
less time. (3) Drills must be added. 

Terms of a Fraction. — (1) Children, watch me fold 
this paper. What am I trying to do, Jacob ? You are 
trying to fold it into equal parts. Into how many equal 
parts have I folded it, Edith? Into four. What may 
we call one of four equal parts of the folded paper, Mary ? 
Perhaps we may call it a fourth part. Yes, one-fourth, 
l^ow let us write one-fourth with figures. Who will try? 
If no one succeeds, the teacher writes ^, calling it a Frac- 
tion, and explaining the name in the simplest way. When 
the children have all had their turn in trying to tell what a 
fraction is, the teacher asks, Which figures show into how 
many equal parts the paper was folded, Emily ? The fig- 
ure 4. The teacher then introduces the term Denominator 
by writing the word on the board and asking two or three 
pupils to tell what the denominator is. The Numerator 
is to be taught in the same way. (2) A variety of numera- 
tors and new denominators is then introduced through illus- 
tration and questions until the conception is complete. 

(3) Drill in Avriting fractions must be added. 



ARITHMETIC 219 

The reason for teaching | before J and -J is that " four " 
suggests " fourth '' more directly than " two " and " three " 
suggest " half '' and " third." In other words, there is 
less confusion in the apperception. 

Two-THIKDS OF TwELVE. — (1) Please count the strokes 



I have put on the board, Jacob. There are twelve. Into 
how many equal groups did I group the strokes, Marie? 
Into three. What may we call one of the three equal 
groups? A third. Two groups? Two-thirds. How 
many, then, are two-thirds of twelve, John ? Two-thirds of 
twelve are eight. 

I will show you how to get the same result by means of 
figures. Writing f of 12, the teacher rubs out the word 
" of " and substitutes X> thus 

_2_ 12 _24 _^_ 
3^1~3~1~^- 

The apperception is very simple. (2) Lessons on | of 15, 
1^ of 16, etc., should follow until the process becomes a habit 
or law. (3) The class should be required to picture and 
work many similar questions until speed has been acquired 
and confusion conquered. 

Two-THiEDS = Four-sixths. — (1) Into how many equal 
parts have I divided the box-picture. 



Maude ? Into three. "What shall we call each equal part, 
Grace ? A third. Two parts ? Two-thirds. Into how 
many parts have I now divided the box, Karl? Into six. 



220 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

What shall we call one of the equal parts? A sixth. 
Please count the sixths in two-thirds of the box, Helen. 
There are four-sixths in two-thirds of the box. 

Let me show you how to get the same results very quickly 
by means of figures. Writing 



2 o 4 



the teacher calls attention to the fact that each third of 
the box is two-sixths of the box, thus giving the child the 
apperceptive reason for using 2 as the multiplier of both 
terms of f . This, of course, is the crisis of the lesson. 
(2) The process must be perfected into law or habit by 
the use of other illustrations. (3) The whole class should 
be required to draw boxes showing that 

_2___6_ _3_ ^12 
3 ~ 9 ^ 5 ~ 20' 




and to get the true results with figures. 

Two-thirds of Five-sevenths. — (1) Boys, into how 
many equal parts have I tried to divide this circle ? Into 
seven. And what shall we call ^ve of these equal 
parts, Jemmie ? Eive-sevenths. And what have I 
done now, girls ? You have divided one-seventh 
of the circle into three equal parts. Shall we 
call each new part one-third of the circle, John? No; 
each new part is a third of a seventh of the circle. What 
have I done this time, Maude? You have divided each 
seventh into three parts. Count all the parts, Marie. 
There are twenty-one. Then what may we call 
one third of one seventh? One twenty-first. Mark 
two thirds of one seventh. Two thirds of five sevenths. 



ARITHMETIC 221 

Now count, Marie. There are ten twenty-firsts. What 
then is true, James? Two thirds of ^ve sevenths is ten 
twenty-firsts. 

The same result can be gotten very quickly by means 
of figures, children. Let me show you. Writing | of f, 
the teacher then erases " of " and substitutes X thus, 
i X f = if- The novelty and quickness of the process 
pleases, and thus impresses and tempts. (2) The process 
is easily developed into rule or habit by means of additional 
examples. (3) Plenty of busy-work should follow. 

Six Divided by OI^^E Third. — (1) Please divide 6 by 3, 

Miriam. Miriam writes - — - — -. 'Now divide 6 by ^. 

Miriam writes 1 ) 6 , and grows confused. This is 
the mental crisis. The teacher coming to the rescue asks, 
Should the answer be more than 2 if we divide by J instead 
of 3, — ^who can tell ? It should be more. I will show you 
how to divide with a fraction. You must turn it upside 
down and proceed as in multiplying, thus 6 -^ -^ = -f- X | 
= 18. (2) Please step to the board, children, and work 
the problems I shall dictate. (3) I will now write a num- 
ber of problems. Please copy them, and work them out 
at your seats. Bring the solutions with you to-morrow. 

(1) Presently, when the boys and girls begin to wonder 
" why " divisors should be turned upside down, or " in- 
verted," the teacher comes to the rescue as follows : 

1-1=1 
l-^|=l 
1 -^ i must be 3 
IXf = 3 

1 divided by 1 equals what ? 1. If I write 1 -f- 1, 
what will the answer be? 1, because f is 1. If I write 
i instead of f, what should the answer be? 3, because 
the new divisor is three times as small as before. What then 



223 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

is our reason for ahvays inverting a fraction divisor and 
proceeding as in multiplying? I think we do all this be- 
cause it is the only way to get what we know we must have 
for the answer. (2) After this the class can be led to see 
apperceptively that what is true of dividing 1 by J must 
be true of 6 divided by f , etc. 

^OTATioisr OF Decimal Fractioi^s. — (1) Please read 
the fraction I have written, Maude. One tenth (yu ). 
Let me show you another way, called the " Decimal " way 
of writing yV, thus .1, the dot standing for the denominator 
10. Who can write x"0"5" ^s ^ decimal? Several attempts 
are made, but nearly all of the pupils write .10. This 
is evidently a mental crisis, and the teacher writes .01, 
placing the before the 1. Please write two-? Jane. 
That is correct (.001). Charles will write yVoir- -125. 
The apperception is comparatively simple, and the learner 
knows his way into the mystery of decimals. (2) Speed 
drills in which competition is produced by assigning the 
same tasks to the whole class, should follow. 

Decimal Operation's. — (1) Problems in addition, sub- 
traction, multiplication, and division must be worked by the 
teacher. This illustrative work must be accompanied by 
explanations. (2) The processes observed must be de- 
veloped into rule or habit by practice, or repetition. (3) 
The class must be quickened by means of competitive speed 
drills on the board, and the operations learned must be 
woven into problems touching life outside of school. 

Playing Store with Weights and Measures. — (1) 
"Dry Measure,'' "Long Measure," "Avoirdupois Weights," 
" Money Values," and other weights and measures can be 
" played " to great advantage. The realism of the thing, 
appealing as it does to motor instincts coupled with social 
life, etc., is fascinating to the boys and girls up to the 
early " teens." The necessary materials and equipments 
are easily procured. The weights and measures thus 
learned must of course be gathered up into tables. Tables 



ARITHMETIC 223 

thus gathered up will be understood and valued at their 
real worth. (2) To make them " second nature," so that 
thej may serve as rules in working problems, many repeti- 
tions will be necessary. Every table should be written 
frequently, thus impressing it. And it should be spoken, 
thus quickening the memory. All confusions must be con- 
quered by resourceful drills. Much review mil finally 
make any table a permanent possession. (3) Every table 
learned should be used in solving problems. The teacher 
should write the problem, let us say, 

20 12 4 

2 ) £3 5s 7d If , 

and work it, adding such instruction as is necessary. 
Abundant practice should follow. 

The realism of playing store with weights and measures 
that can be brought into the school-room may of course be 
pushed into larger weights and measures, as acres and tons, 
or into abstract concepts, as an hour. Some boy, for ex- 
ample, may be required to take about 70 yard-steps in a 
straight line across a field, and then just as far at right 
angles to the first line. The whole school may be watch- 
ing. Wlien the boy has returned, the teacher should draw 
the two routes taken by the boy and complete the square, 
calling it the picture of an " acre." The realism with 
which it was associated will prevent all confusion in the 
acre concept. 

A 3.1416 Lesson. — (1) James, please measure the 
diameter of this circular wheel. It is exactly 
one inch. Miss Johnson. "Now measure the 
circumference with this tape. It is 3 inches 
and more. Yes, James, it is .1416 of an inch 
more. You will have to take my word for the deci- 
mal part until you study Geometry. (2) ISTow, Mary, 



® 



324 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

please measure this larger circle. And this smaller one. I 
find that the circumference is about 3 times — perhaps I 
should say 3.1416 time? as long as the diameter, Miss 
Johnson. How then may we always find the circumference 
of a circle, Ralph, if the diameter is given ? And how may 
we find the diameter if the circumference is given, Paul? 
(3) The class may step to the board. Please find the 
circumference of a circle whose diameter is 15. l^ow find 
the diameter of a circle whose circumference is 15.7080 
inches. Prove it by constructing the necessary circle. 

GiviisTG Tasks to Beginners at the Board. — The same 
tasks should be assigned to all the members of the class. 
This will put them into friendly competition with each 
other, thus producing speed in working. This must be 
the dominating purpose in the exercises for beginners. It 
is the habit building epoch in arithmetic. 

Board Work Perfections. — All the figures should be 
legible and neat. All the signs of operation and the like 
should be formed correctly. Quiet courtesy should become 
the habit. The strictest honesty must be the rule and ideal. 

Beginners Explaining Board Work. — The pupil should 
hold the pointer in the right hand, or the left, as may suit 
the place from which he must face the class. The pointer 
should be capped with an old fashioned lead pencil rubber 
cap. The pupil should stand easily erect, unconscious of 
the hand not in use. He should speak with a pleasing voice, 
distinct and loud enough. As a rule the explanation of 
beginners is only telling what was done, with the simple 
why^s that may be possible for such beginners. 

Assigning the ]^ext Lesson. — (1) l^o lessons should 
be assigned to young pupils. All that they should be re- 
quired to do between times must consist of repetition work. 
(2) When the class grows older, book-lessons may be 
assigTied. This should be done at the close of the recitation, 
and coupled with such suggestions, hints, etc., as the class 
may need. 



ARITHMETIC 235 

Methods of Teaching Intermediate Arithmetic 

The apperceptive process must be deepened more and 
more as the pupil in arithmetic continues in his course. 
The useful and the strenuous must be emphasized more 
and more in his tasks. 

Preparations for Recitations. — Preparations for the reci- 
recitations must be emphasized more and more as the pupils 
pass on through school. 

Pupils Preparing Lessons. — (1) The preparation of 
lessons by means of text-books puts to profitable use " be- 
tween times " that are often foolishly wasted. (2) Wisely 
safe-guarded against the evils of extending the study-hours 
too far into the night, home-study is of the greatest import- 
ance to boys and girls growing up and getting ready for the 
life they must live when school days end. (3) To develop 
the very important power of self-reliance, the text-books in 
use should not contain answers; for if they do, the pupil 
will be tempted to rely on " authority " and thus fail to 
become a real ^^ thinker." 

The Teacher's Preparations. — (1) The modern 
teacher of arithmetic will not '^ trust his memory " from 
year to year in arithmetic. Even if his text-book should 
contain the answers, he will study the lessons every year. 
This will make sure of himself in every crisis. In his 
apperceptive rescues of the learner in confusion there will 
be the skill and effectiveness of the master. (2) In order 
to assign new lessons apperceptively he will keep at least 
a day ahead of his class. (3) To save time for his classes 
he will write out questions for the board work. (4) School 
books should not be too large and heavy. As a result texts 
on arithmetic seldom contain enough exercise under each 
rule to produce speed enough and skill enough in the pro- 
cess. Then, too, the book can not meet the special needs 
of the individual pupils in the development of power to 
wrestle with arithmetical complexities. For both reasons 
15 



226 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

the teacher must construct supplementary problems specially 
adapted to the purposes in hand. These must of course be 
written on the board for the classes, and, when worked, 
must be inspected. All this takes time, but it pays in the 
end. 

The Recitations of Intermediate Pupils. — Several ad- 
justments to the needs of boys and girls who have lately 
passed beyond the elements, or fundamentals, of arith- 
metic, deserve attention. Among these are the following: 

AssiGNiJN-G Problems. — (1) When the class has passed 
to the board and prepared it according to directions, a 
different problem should be assigned to each pupil. This 
method serves the special purposes of intermediate arith- 
metic : it compels the worker to wrestle independently with 
difficulties; and it helps the teacher cover in a reasonable 
time the ground that should be covered in preparing pupils 
for life, (2) As a rule the problems to be worked should 
be written on " numbered slips " of paper, and distributed 
to pupils at the board. This takes time, but pays in the 
end. When the books in use do not contain answers, and the 
class is large, the pupils may be sent to the board by " page 
and number." But the book is in the pupil's way. If 
the class is mature and small, problems may be " dic- 
tated," the pupil being allowed to take down " in short " 
just enough to serve the purpose. The teacher should speak 
distinctly and the pupil should attend carefully. 

BoAED-WoRK PERFECTioisrs. — The teacher should never 
tolerate the " slip-shod " carelessness of which boys and 
girls in their early " teens " are so often guilty. Every 
figure, line, or mark should be quite correct and distinct. 
Every statement should be definite and complete. Every 
step in the working of the problem should be taken ad- 
visedly. Absolute system should be cultivated. 

ExpLAiN-iNG THE Board-Work. — (1) Pupils should 
hear each other explain problems. The practice has high 
cultural value. The latter part of the recitation period 



ARITHMETIC 227 

should be wliolly set apart for explanations. The inter- 
mediate pupil's explanations should of course be argumen- 
tative rather than descriptive. (2) When the class fails 
on something that was to be conquered at the board, all that 
may be needed is a skilful apperceptive explanation by the 
teacher. To defer such explanation too many days may 
arouse the suspicion that the teacher cannot work the 
problem, or if not that, it may cause the class to lose am- 
bition. Explanation should usually be coupled with the 
introduction of new subjects or new cases. The proper 
time for such explanation on the part of teachers is when 
lessons are assigned. 

Teaching Gew^eral Truths. — As already said, the gen- 
eral truths of arithmetic deserve attention. The explana- 
tion of problems should extend to definitions, rules, and 
principles. (1) The intermediate pupil should be required 
to prove his definitions. (2) When new subjects like per- 
centage, proportion, progression, or roots, are taken up, 
possible rules of operations should be compared. The 
method that has the strongest arguments in its favor should 
then be agreed upon, and developed into life-habit. (3) 
Older pupils should be taught to deduce rules from princi- 
ples, and to extend the simpler rules to complex applica- 
tions. From the principle " the smaller the divisor the 
greater the quotient," the rule of inverting fractional divis- 
ors and proceeding as in multiplication can be readily 
deduced. The familiar rule of dividing a fraction either 
by dividing the numerator or by multiplying the denomina- 
tor, applied to a number of fractions like f, |, f, and -3^ 
gives rise to the rule of finding the " greatest common 
divisor of these fractions. The argument is really very 
simple: The number 2 is a divisor of all the numerators, 
and it is also the greatest divisor at the same time. In 
other words it is the " greatest common divisor " of the 
numerators. The greatest common divisor of the denomi- 
nators must just as evidently be the least common multiple 



328 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

of these denominators. This multiple is readily found by 
multiplying the prime factors together. The problem is 
therefore worked as follows : 

2 ) I I I A 2 G. C. D. 

X 
2) 2 3 4 5 



X 1 X 3 X 2 X 5 = 120 L. C. M. = G. C. D. 

When the intermediate pupil finally passes into high school 
work, the argumentative phases of arithmetic must of course 
be emphasized increasingly, and the practical applications 
of arithmetic must be extended into all the most important 
concerns of life. 

Teaching Advanced Arithmetic 

Advanced arithmetic, consisting of complex arguments, 
and therefore resorting to complex computations, should 
evidently be attempted only by pupils who have mastered 
the " apperceptive whole " which makes it possible for 
them to succeed. The pupils should be isolated more and 
more from the teacher in their lesson-preparations. Less 
and less direct instruction, but more and more effectual 
appeal to manly pugnacity, becomes the teacher's necessary 
rule of dealing with the class. The teacher who knows 
his subject and his pupils well enough to adjust the two 
apperceptively and genetically all through the intermediate 
course, should find no serious obstacles in advanced work. 

Mental Arithmetic 

Mental arithmetic is so called from the attempt of War- 
ren Coburn to devise a strictly cultural arithmetic — 
arithmetic " for the mind's sake " rather than " for filthy 
lucre's sake." 

The Nature of Mental Arithmetic. — The special pur- 
pose determines both the construction of problems and the 
method of solution. (1) The problem is so framed that 



ARITHMETIC 229 

the solution must consist of alternate analysis and synthesis 
in logical succession. (2) All mental jumps and language 
make-shifts in the solving of problems is strictly forbidden. 

(3) Fidelity to Cobum's ideal combines memory and will 
most effectively with analjrtic and synthetic reasoning. 

(4) The effort to say exactly what one thinks exactly is a 
most valuable exercise in language. 

The following problem and solution illustrate the nature 
of mental arithmetic: 

Problem. — If 2-| lbs. of coffee cost 50 cts., what will 
3^ lbs. cost ? 

Solution. — If 2|, or | lbs. of coffee cost 50 cts., | lb. 
costs -J of 50 cts., or 10 cts., and |, or 1 lb., costs 2 times 
10 cts., or 20 cts. If 1 lb. costs 20 cts., -J lb. costs i of 
20 cts., or -^^ cts., and 3 J, or ^ lbs. will cost 10 times ^o 
cts., or -^ cts., or 66f cts. 

Course of Lessons. — Mental arithmetic should be taken 
up in earnest in the latter years of the intermediate course 
in written arithmetic. The course can hardly be completed 
before the second or third year of the high school. An 
elementary course in Algebra helps mental arithmetic very 
much. This course should belong to the last year of the 
grammar school. 

Assigning Lessons. — The analytic character of mental 
arithmetic and its independent progress from problem to 
problem, makes it necessary to assign shorter lessons than 
in written arithmetic. 

Preparing Lessons. — (1) The teacher must be abso- 
lutely sure that he can solve all questions and prove the 
answers. Neglect along these lines is serious ; it confuses 
the class and destroys necessary confidence in the teacher 
as a teacher. Boys and girls in their " teens " admire 
the " master " in mental arithmetic. (2) The pupil should 
be accustomed to solve all questions of the assigned lesson 
before the recitation period arrives. This helps to concen- 
trate the mind on the subject ; it furnishes a most effective 



230 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

exercise in independent thinking, and makes it possible to 
accomplisk better results in the recitation period. 

Recitation Methods. — If the culture results of which 
mental arithmetic is capable are to be fully attained, the 
problems must be solved without referring to the book. 
Several methods may be followed. 

Common Method. — The teacher reads a problem, and 
calls upon a pupil to rise, repeat the problem, and solve it, 
without referring to the book. This method compels the 
whole class to listen until the question has been assigned, 
and it combines a high degree of attention with memory 
and reasoning. This, as we recall, is the end in view. 
Trapping may be permitted as a stimulus to attention and 
study. 

Chance Method. — The common method may be modi- 
fied in one very important respect. Cards with the 
number and page of the problems to be recited may be pre- 
pared. The recitation may begin with the drawing of a 
card by each pupil. When the teacher has read a problem, 
he mentions the number and page, and the pupil holding 
this number rises, repeats the problem, and solves it as he 
would in the common method. The " chance method," as 
it has been aptly called, has the merit of preventing all 
charges of partiality, and at the same time serves as a 
stimulus to study. 

Parts Method. — The " parts method '' is so called be- 
cause the pupil first called upon to solve a question is not 
allowed to finish. The person called upon to take up the 
solution where the first one left off, may be followed by 
another, and this one by a third, and so on. This method 
requires intense attention on the part of the teacher and 
the class. The strain is however too great. Only superior 
personality can hope to succeed with this method. 

Silent Method. — When the teacher has read a problem, 
all pupils solve it silently. As soon as any pupil gets 
through he raises his hand. Presently some one is re- 



ARITHMETIC 231 

quested to rise, repeat tlie problem, and solve it. This 
method undoubtedly serves the purposes of mental arith- 
metic admirably, but requires too much time. It may be 
used occasionally as a stimulating variation from the com- 
mon method. 

Written Woek. — Part of the class may be sent to the 
board to write out solutions while the rest of the class solve 
questions orally. Pupils sent to the board must of course 
be allowed to take the book, unless the problems have been 
copied from the book on cards. The specific purposes of 
mental arithmetic are thus largely lost, but the writing out 
of problems is nevertheless a fine exercise in reasoning and 
language. Where the class is large, the method helps to 
employ more pupils profitably. 

Value of Arithmetic 

The value of arithmetic as a means to ends in education 
has always been recognized. 

Culture. — xis soon as the pupil has fairly mastered the 
mechanics of arithmetic and entered its argumentative 
fields, arithmetic becomes a disciplinary study preeminent. 
(1) The memory must hold in immediate readiness the 
apperceptive whole without which no new conquests can 
be made. (2) The employment of the mechanics of arith- 
metic as a means to ends in the argument calls for nicety 
of judgment at every turn. (3) As an argument consist- 
ing of equations arithmetic is an admirable exercise in exact 
reasoning. (4) As an effect of the exactness of its reason- 
ing process arithmetic develops respect for absolute truth. 
(5) The stress and strain under which the complex argu- 
ment of arithmetic puts the pupil enlarges will, makes it 
wrestle harder, leads to perseverance, and the like. (6) 
Inasmuch, however, as arithmetic confines the mind to 
quantity divorced from quality, it tends to narrow vision 
when pursued without correction. And the respect for abso- 
lute truth which quantitative argument tends to beget may 



232 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

easily develop into a very objectionable dogmatic attitude 
of mind. 

Practical Value. — Tbe celebrated " Committee of Fif- 
teen '^ has this to say about the practical valne of arith- 
metic : '^ It is the first tool of thought man invents in the 
work of emancipating himself from the thraldom of external 
forces. For by the command of numbers he learns to divide 
and conquer. He can proportion one force to another, and 
concentrate against an obstacle precisely what is needed to 
overcome it. ISTumber also makes possible all the other 
sciences of nature which depend on exact measurement and 
exact record of phenomena as to the following items : order 
of succession, date, duration, locality, environment, extent 
of sphere of influence, number of manifestations, number 
of cases of intermittence. All these can be defined accu- 
rately only by means of number." 

Training of Teachers. — If arithmetic is so important 
teachers must be adequately trained. (1) This training 
includes first of all a thorough mastery of the subject itself. 
This course should include not simply the lessons which 
teachers must teach, but a much more extensive course to 
serve as inspiration and to furnish all the points of view 
in teaching the subject. (2) The arithmetic teacher should 
be able to organize arithmetic apperceptively. Unless he 
can do this, he will never make disciples. To accomplish 
these ends the arithmetic teacher needs a thorough course in 
the psychology of arithmetic. (3) Then, too, the arith- 
metic teacher must know genetic psychology as such. With- 
out a general course in genetic psychology it is difiicult to 
know the individual pupils of the class. The apperceptive 
adjustment of tasks to the pupil " where he is " genetically 
interpreted is the very highest pedagogic attainment. 

History of Arithmetic 

Arithmetic is one of the oldest children of necessity. 
It was used before the world began to be civilized. It was 



ARITHMETIC 233 

the indispensable handmaid of astronomy and building 
operations in the valley of the ISTile and the valley of the 
Tigris and Euphrates four or five thousand years before 
Christ. The speculative Hindoos were the fathers of the 
decimal sj^stem and the Arabs revealed the secret to the 
Western world. To the Greeks and Romans belongs the 
honor of converting arithmetic from an occult art cultivated 
by the few into a liberal art given to the schools. Arith- 
metic was the fundamental art of the quadrivium of the 
Middle Ages. In modem needs it has become one of the 
three R's, the most indispensable means to the ends of 
practical education. More than this, it has become the 
highly developed and all-powerful handmaid of science and 
philosophy. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Educational Review, April, 1897. 

2. Educational Review, November, 1891. 

3. Educational Review, April, 1906. 

4. American Education, September, 1906. 



CHAPTER VIII 
GEOGRAPHY 

The Nature of Geography 

Geography is now a science. As a science it makes the 
subjects of many other sciences its own, and yet remains 
distinct from them. Briefly put, Geography is the science 
of the earth and man as related to each other. 

The Subject of Geography. — The real subject of 
geography is not the earth as such, nor man as such, but the 
earth as the physical environment of man, and man as he 
accommodates himself to this environment. 

Subdivisions of Geography. — (1) The study of the 
earth as the physical environment of man is known as 
Physical Geography, or Physiography. In physiography 
the earth as environment is subdivided into land and water, 
soil and weather, and the natural resources which result 
from these. Astronomical, or Mathematical Geography, 
is that subdivision of physiography in which the earth is 
studied as a part of the solar system. 

(2) Man is the subject of geography in all his attempts 
to adapt himself to the earth as his home or the earth as 
his home to himself. These attempts produce political 
divisions of the surface of the earth, special forms of gov- 
ernment, society, etc., a multitude of industries, arts, and 
occupations, etc. The study of these attempts and their 
results is known as Historical, or Political Geography. 
Commercial geography is that department of political 
geography devoted especially to the useful commodities, the 
productive centres of the earth, and the markets of the 
world. 

Relation of Geography to Sciences. — Geography, as 
has been said, invades the domains of many sciences — is in 
234 



GEOGRAPHY 235 

a sense a conglomerate. In the study of plants, for example, 
geography invades botany, bnt differs from botany in this 
that it does not study plants as plants, but as part of the 
physical environment to which man must adapt himself as 
man. In the same way geography invades physics, chem- 
istry, geology, mineralogy, zoology, meteorology, astronomy, 
etc., on the side of nature, and history, psychology, sociol- 
ogy, civics, etc., on the side of man. Because geography 
invades all these sciences to study things of vital importance 
to man, it is a most interesting cyclopaedic preparation for 
so many sciences. And because the subjects which must be 
studied as man's physical environment cannot be fully 
understood as environment until they become subjects in 
and for themselves, all the sciences which geography invades 
must be used as final reinforcements of geography. 

The Psychology of Geography 

The mental action to which the science of geography gives 
rise is somewhat sui generis^ like other sciences, as a con- 
sequence of the nature of the subject matter. 

Observation-. — (1) The "near" must be directly ob- 
served, as when we study islands, bays, soils, winds, people, 
industries, etc. As in other studies, so in geography, accu- 
rate perception is the only safeguard against erroneous 
conception and apperception. And the language of geog- 
raphy must get its real meanings from the things themselves. 
(2) The "far" must of course be pictured by the help 
of the sense-experienced " near," as in studying other lands 
and people. The process may be called apperception, but 
it is a complex process, and involves especially imagination 
well supported by the memory and judgment. Geographical 
imagination can be greatly reinforced by imitating, or rep- 
resenting, whatever is to be mentally pictured. The most 
concrete means of such imitation are sand, clay, and 
photographs; the most convenient means are relief globes, 
ordinary globes, relief maps, ordinary maps, and descriptive 



336 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

texts. Sucli imitation, or representation, not only rein- 
forces geographical imagination, but it reinforces also its 
necessary handmaid, memory. 

IiSTDUCTiox. — By reason of the size, extent, or distance 
of the things to be studied, the comparison of cases to 
develop concepts and definitions, and the comparison of 
causes or effects, in order to discover laws and systems, are 
often quite beyond the capacity and interest of beginners, 
and should therefore be simplified if possible, or deferred 
to later times, as in the study of drainage, winds, tides, 
currents, forms of government, society, etc. The teacher 
should always proceed from the simple to the complex sub- 
ject, and from the less to the more remote in causal sequence. 
And both the matter and the attack upon it should be nicely 
adapted to the dominant interests of the class at the time in 
question. The " large " should, if possible, be introduced 
through the " small," as when we teach continental drainage 
through its home-geography " type," or case. Complex 
" development lessons " like the commercial area bordering 
upon the great lakes between the United States and Canada 
should be deferred to the high school period. 

Deduction. — Geography misses its supreme mission 
when it fails in its practical applications. The teacher of 
geography should constantly endeavor to " drive home " 
the laws to which the life of man must be subjected as a 
consequence of his environment. The final purpose of 
geography must ever be to use the mountain and the river, 
to adapt one's self to wind and wave, to times and seasons, 
etc. The difiiculty of the struggle should be honestly set 
forth, the need of world-wide sympathies should be ever 
emphasized, and the boundless opportunities of life should 
be seized upon with enthusiasm. 

Courses of Geography 

In harmony with dominating interests and the main 
requirement of apperceptive sequence, as shown by special- 



GEOGRAPHY 237 

ists, geography can be taken up most conveniently in three 
courses. 

Course for Beginners. — Up to the age of ten or twelve, 
the child is very much interested in moving objects, in 
observing concrete things, in the recognition and naming of 
things, in human life and animal life, especially in home 
life and child life. Between the age of eight and twelve, 
roughly speaking, these " child loves " widen into many 
channels. The collecting instinct begins to manifest itself, 
and often with much force. All sorts of particulars are 
readily stored in the memory. The homes of people, their 
clothing, food, habits, occupations, etc., become intensely 
interesting to the child of ten. Interest in animal life con- 
tinues to be strong. Land, water, w^eather, flowers, stones, 
stars, etc., attract much attention, and provoke many ques- 
tions. Hero worship coupled with desire to be brave and 
free manifests itself quite early in both sexes. The patriotic 
interest coupled with more or less political interest wakes 
up almost as early. The longing to know the cause of 
phenomena begins to manifest itself, but not with any 
special force. If these interests are the measure of the 
child, the course for beginners in geography should be 
something like the following: (1) The course should begin 
with man and nature in the child's immediate surround- 
ings. The emphasis must be on life, especially human life 
and animal life. The world of plants, stones, stars, etc., 
should be entered at the interesting gateways. The course 
should include the study of the simplest phases of the 
political life in the home land. Causal questions should be 
recognized and respected. (2) The course in "home 
geography " should be extended to a course along the same 
lines in other lands. (3) " Globe geography," or " the 
earth as a whole," should be introduced in its simplest form 
in connection with lessons on other lands. The meaning of 
maps must be taught very early. To this instruction must 
be added simple exercises in free-hand map-drawing as a 



238 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

necessary reinforcement of tlie geographical imagination. 
Elementary lessons on wall maps are important for the 
same reason. (4) The preceding course, and a preparatory 
training in form and numbers, should be followed by a 
simple course of lessons in mathematical geography. This 
course should include simple explanations of day and night, 
and the seasons. Lessons on parallels, meridians, zones, 
etc., must follow. 

Intermediate Course. — Extension and details, secured 
through home excursions and imaginary travels, become a 
most attractive pursuit of the boys and girls at the threshold 
of the early " teens." Likeness and relation, together with 
larger wholes, now attract some attention. The abstract 
and the general begin to please. Accordingly, the second 
course in geography should conform at the same time to the 
law of apperceptive sequence and these dominating inter- 
ests. (1) The area of the earlier home geography should 
be very much enlarged and perfected. " The human ele- 
ment should still predominate with greater and greater 
stress on details including art, occupations, manufactures, 
economical, social, and political conditions, with consid- 
erable weight on comparisons." (2) The area of the early 
travel course, like that of the early home geography, must 
be very much extended and perfected. (3) Elementary 
physical, mathematical, and commercial geography should 
be woven into the home geography and the travel course. 
(4) Map study and free-hand map-drawing must of course 
accompany and constitute an important part of the inter- 
mediate course. (5) The content of the intermediate course 
should always have an important bearing on ordinary life. 

Advanced Course. — Likeness and relation, together with 
larger wholes, become dominating interests of older boys 
and girls. This is the scientific interest. Mathematical 
and commercial interests are usually also very powerful. 
The high school course in geography should therefore 
include thorough courses not only in political, but also in 



GEOGRAPHY 939 

mathematical, physical, and commercial geography. Com- 
prehensive college courses, and highly special courses must 
wait. 

TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 

The matter of geography, by determining the mental 
action that is best, determines, as always, also what is best 
in methods of instruction. 

The Method with Beginners 

The teaching of beginners in geography, like that of any 
branch, has its own peculiarities as determined by the 
special purposes. 

Preparations. — (1) The child learns a great deal of 
geography before he takes it up as a study. When geog- 
raphy becomes a study, as it should at the age of eight or 
nine, a formal text-book is really a hindrance at first. Until 
a text-book is given to the learner, no special preparations 
can be made by him, except that part of the busy-work 
between recitations may be based on geography that has 
been learned. When a formal text, like that of Morton 
is taken up, as it should be at the age of nine or ten, 
lessons must of course be assigned by the teacher and pre- 
pared by the pupil. E'ature study collecting, mounting, and 
labelling should be encouraged as the class grows older. 
Inter-school geographical correspondence and exchange of 
photographs are recommended. (2) The teacher of begin- 
ners in geography must take the time to choose the subjects 
to be studied day after day. This daily choice of subject 
matter must conform with the general requirements of 
apperception and the dominating interests of childhood. 
He must master the subjects chosen, and plan the very 
details of the coming recitation, leaving just as little to 
chance as possible. If the recitation is to be " out-of-doors,'* 
as it must be very frequently in "home-geography," he 
must have the situation well in hand, so that waste of time 



340 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

and confusion may not mar his efforts. He must also 
supply himself with the photographs, globes, maps, and 
travel books which he will need for the geographical imagi- 
nation, or the extension from the near to the far, the small 
to the large, etc., which belongs to almost every lesson. The 
sand, clay, moulding board, paper, pencil, board, etc., 
needed for the drawing exercises must be at the teacher's 
command. 

Recitations with Beginners. — (1) The study of 
geography, as said elsewhere, should begin with home sur- 
roundings. What is learned in this way should be used as 
the stepping stone to something like it in the distance. 
The creek in the meadow near the school, for example, 
should be used to help the beginner study a river that is 
seen only in pictures or in drawings. The things observed 
and the thing to be pictured must not tax the powers of the 
learner too much. (2) Inductive apperceptions should be 
simplified by selecting cases that are very much alike, and 
relations that are very obvious, for comparison. For in- 
stance, to think the definition of a bay the child should see 
a number of bays so much alike as to make the bay idea 
necessary. To help the beginner think the law of water 
courses he should see relief areas whose slope and course 
of stream are so evidently cause and effect that he will 
surely see the connection. (3) The deductive, or practical, 
apperceptions so important in geography should of course be 
simplified just as much as the inductions. The new cases 
shoidd be so much like the old that the class to which they 
belong is evident. (4) The recitations should at first be 
wholly oral. A little board work may be introduced by 
and by. (5) The following lessons are appended as illus- 
trations of the method to be used with beginners. It will 
be noticed that the learner is always required to observe 
the near, and pass from it to the far by apperceptive imagi- 
nation. Representation and explanation follow observation 
and imagination. 



GEOGRAPHY 241 

!N'eighboes aistd Feiends. — (1) Mary, please name a 
number of your neighbors. How do some of them make a 
living ? Describe the house in which Mr. Andrews and his 
family live, James. What are some of the things you like 
to eat best. Hazel ? Please tell how the mail-carrier that 
just passed is dressed? How does Mr. Johnson water his 
cows? Can you tell why? (2) Children, this is a photo- 
graph of farm life in Holland. Tell me what you see, 
Harry. I will read you a very pretty story from this book ; 
it tells about a little Dutch girl whose name was Wilhelmina. 
James would you rather live here or where Wilhelmina 
lived? Why?'^ 

Animal Fkiends. — (1) Karl, name your grandmamma's 
dear old pussy. Tell us what she liked to eat, where she 
slept, how she loved to be petted, what became of her. 
A^Tiat kind of a pussy would you like to own, Clarence ? 
Why? (2) This is the picture of a wild cat. Please pass 
it along to your classmates. Who in the class has seen a 
wild cat? Tell about it, Grace. On page 15 in this little 
reader you will find an exciting story about the adventures 
of a wild cat. Mary may read it for us right now. What 
would you do. Prank, if a wild cat tried to do the same 
thing to your sister? By and by we shall learn about a 
larger wild cat known as the " Tiger." I feel sure you will 
be interested. Our lesson for to-day is ended, but I want 
to see who can write the best " pussy story " to be read 
when we recite the next time. 

OuK Plant Peiends. — (1) Children, is n't this a lovely 
walk ! We must try our best to get acquainted with a few 
of our plant friends, and then hurry home, for mother will 
want us. There, for example, is the little clover plant. 
John may talk with it a little while, and ask it all the ques- 
tions he can think. Mildred may do the same thing with. 
Mr. Cornstalk. ^Vhile they are busy, we will get acquainted 
with this pretty grape-vine. John, how do you and your 
clover friend get along? Mildred, please tell what Mr. 
16 



242 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Cornstalk does for his friends. (2) I brought this picture 
of a cotton field with me. You may look at it. To-morrow 
we shall read the story of a little colored boy and his sister 
working in a cotton field. 

An Ocean Stokm. — (1) Was n't that a fearful storm last 
night ! Did you notice how it hurt the trees and houses all 
along the road to school? (2) This is a picture of a ship 
caught in an ocean storm. What do you think the captain 
of the ship and the sailors should do on such a ship, Ralph ? 
How do you think boys and girls like you could pass the 
time if the storm lasted two or three days, Mary ? (3) Let 
us listen to Paul while he reads this story of a storm on 
the Atlantic Ocean. This (pointing to it on a globe) shows 
you the roundness and shape of the Atlantic Ocean, but 
remember that it is so large it takes about 6 days for the 
fastest ship to cross. But Paul is ready to read. How 
should a captain like that be rewarded for his courage, 
Mark ? (4) Would you rather be in a thick forest or upon 
the ocean through a three days' storm ? Why ? Look at 
the globe. Who can tell why the storm cannot force the 
ocean out of its bed ? 

Directions. — (1) (Handing a pocket compass to 
Prank) Please examine it. Let your classmates examine it 
now. What does the needle do even if you rotate the case ? 
It always points one way. Yes, children, it always points 
North. Directly opposite is South. The sun rises in the 
East ; it sets in the West. Florence may face the [N'orth and 
point to the East and West. (2) N'ow, children, N'orth is 
on and on and on, no matter how far you go. It is so with 
all the " directions." (3) I will draw the four directions 
from the point where you stand, Florence. They are called 
the " Cardinal Directions," because they are thought and 
drawii from the centre or the heart. If I turned this paper 
up this way, the up-line is the IN'orth-line, the down-line the 
South-line, etc. (4) Who can tell why we ought to know 
these directions ? 



GEOGRAPHY 243 

Lessons on the " Relative Directions " must be taken up 
in the same spirit, but not until the child cannot be con- 
fused by the difference. Thinking map-directions from the 
centre of the surface then in question should become a 
mental habit before the relative directions need be learned. 

The Meanijstg of Maps. — (1) Ada, please name every- 
thing you can see. (The class is standing near a country 
school house.) (2) (Coming in and bidding all to be seated 
near the black-board) I will use marks or signs for the 
things Ada named, and will so place these marks as to show 
their distance and direction from each other. These dotted 
lines are meant for fences, that curving line for the creek, 
this one for the hill on which the school house stands, etc. 
This map (show them a map of the township, or state in 
wdiich they live) is made for the same purposes. Let us try 
to understand the meaning of the many marks. (3) Please 
open your book on page 3. What do you find, Karl ? A 
map of Pennsylvania. Tell us some of the things which 
this map helps us picture. Mary, please read what the 
book says about Pennsylvania. (4) Why do Ave need maps ? 

Pree-hand map-drawing should begin as soon as the class 
has learned the meaning of maps as such pretty thoroughly. 
It will serve as a stimulus to careful study of the lesson- 
maps, and will therefore aid the geographical imagination 
and its necessary hand-maid, memory. 

When book-prepared lessons become the regular thing, 
the recitation must be centred more and more in a service- 
able wall map. All the geography the class can learn by the 
help of the pictures, diagrams, and maps of the text-book 
in use must be so perfectly transmitted to the wall map 
that henceforth it will stand for them all. This effect can 
be greatly heightened by the use of travel books, photo- 
graphs, the souvenirs of tourists, etc. The wall-map should 
of course not have names, or else it will not be as fine a 
stimulus to the study of the book-maps. Relief maps and 
relief globes can be used with fine effect. 



244 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

The Shape of the Earth. — (1) (Standing with the 
class near the school house) Children, notice with your eye 
where the earth and the sky seem to meet. What sort of a 
line would show this meeting, Mary ? A large circle. How 
would you draw the circle to show what you could see from 
a mountain peak, Alfred? Much larger. What then do 
you suppose the shape of the earth to be if you could see 
far enough to see it all, Alice? Like a circle. (2) Yes, 
children, it would seem so, but the shape of the earth is 
more like an orange flattened at the top and bottom. Let us 
use this black ball instead of an orange. (A croquet ball 
blackened with ink, a darning needle through a gimlet hole 
for an axis, may be used. ) What would happen if I started 
here with my crayon, and moved all around the ball without 
changing the direction, John ? You would get to the start- 
ing point again after going all around. Well, children, 
that is just exactly what a girl by the name of JSTellie Ely 
and other persons have done with the earth. What does it 
prove, Ellen ? It proves that the earth is round. 

Many interesting questions will arise, and the teachers 
must be thoroughly prepared for them. Additional proofs 
that the earth is round should follow as the class advances. 

Day and Night. — (1) Whsit have I done, Mary? You 
made the ball go round on the needle. Yes ; let us call the 
needle the " axis " of the ball, and its two ends " poles." 
(Lighting an ordinary tallow candle, placing it on the table 
before the class, and rotating the ball near the candle) 
How much of the ball is brightened by the light, Karl ? As 
nearly as I can see, about one-half, and the other half is 
dark. (This effect can be gotten perfectly by drawing all 
the school room blinds, or shutters.) (2) Children, the 
earth rotates very much like this ball. Of course you could 
not find an axis even if you penetrated to the place where 
it ought to be, but the needle-axis helps us think what takes 
place. The sun lights up one-half of the earth all the time, 
just as the candle would if you rotated the ball from East 



GEOGRAPHY 245 

to West all the time. Who knows the effect on the earth? 
It causes day and night, Miss Johnson. That is the true 
answer, Mary. 

Many questions will arise, many details must be woven 
into this topic. It will take many days to finish the lesson 
and to take up others growing out of it. 

The Seasons. — The first lesson on the " Seasons " should 
not be attempted until the equator, the poles, and the north 
and south hemispheres have been taught. The seasons, as 
well as the preceding lessons should be taught with the 
candle and a globe or ball. (1) The present lesson should 
begin with placing the lighted candle on a table before the 
class. What did I do, Paul? You carried the ball all 
around the candle. I will do so again, and you may all 
try to see what I make the needle-axis do. Can you tell 
us, James ? You made it lean in the same direction all the 
way round. (Holding the ball to suit the purpose) Does the 
light fall more directly on the upper or the lower half of 
the ball? On the upper half. And now? On the lower 
half. (2) Children, the earth goes round the sun just like 
the ball. The time it takes is called a " year." The course 
of the earth round the sun is called the " orbit " of the 
earth. The leaning of the imaginary axis is called the 
" inclination of the axis." Where the sunlight strikes the 
earth the straightest it is warmest. John, should we call 
the time when it is the warmest anywhere upon the earth 
Summer or Winter ? Summertime. (Holding the ball to 
suit the purpose) What time is here just now, Mary? 
Winter. Here? Spring. Here? Fall. What name do 
we give to these year-times, James ? I think we call them 
Seasons. Let us think about the seasons just a little while. 
Then follow all sorts of questions and answers on people, 
animals, plants, etc. Photographs, travel stories, speci- 
mens of products, etc., should be called into service. 

Lessons on degrees, latitude and longitude, parallels and 
meridians, zones and bounding circles, polar seasons, phases 



246 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

of the moon, etc., should follow by and by. If the simplest 
kinds of lessons on these mathematical topics have been 
taught by the time the class has passed through an up-to- 
date book for beginners it is soon enough. 

Teaching Intermediate Geography 

The course itself, considered in connection with the 
apperceptive requirements and dominating interests upon 
which the course is built, must determine both the prepara- 
tions for the recitation and the recitation methods. 

Preparations. — (1) The intermediate text-book is 
fuller and harder. Longer lessons must be assigned, and the 
pupil muft be made to realize that the lessons should be 
well prepared. As he grows mature enough he must learn 
to compare his text with other texts, refer to cyclopsedias, 
consult the dictionary, draw maps, keep excursion note- 
books, etc. (2) The teacher must study both the lesson 
and his class. He must gather illustrative photographs, 
cabinet specimens, and travel stories. He must make him- 
self the master of all the maps and globes to be used. He 
must draw the maps he hopes to teach. His library should 
contain all sorts of books on geography and the methods of 
teaching geography. 

Intermediate Recitations. — Out-of-door observations 
should continue to be made to serve as point of departure 
for a world-touring imagination. Cause and effect should 
be emphasized a little more. Typical cases should be of tener 
pursued to the multitude of likenesses, or law. The " small 
whole " should often lead to the " large whole." 

Excursions. — ^Neighborhood excursions with definite 
ends in view should be planned by the teacher. To keep 
these excursions from infringing on school hours, they can 
be announced the day before, and, if they cannot be 
attempted in the noon recess, they should take place after 
school hours or on Saturdays. 'No inconvenient expenses 
should be incurred, and the school community should not 



GEOGRAPHY 347 

be offended by any improprieties of conduct. ISTote-book 
accounts should be required. These should contain both 
free-hand drawings of the observations made, and also full 
descriptions. 

Supplementary Reading. — The intermediate course 
should include •moi'e and more supplementary reading. Such 
reading fills up the " text-book gaps/' gives the dry-bones 
flesh and blood, accustoms the learner to look beyond the 
" one-book " world, and, by helping to make the " far- 
world " real, makes him " Mn to all the world.'' For- 
tunately for the boys and girls of our day, good travel books, 
periodicals, and geographical readers, can be had in great 
abundance almost for the asking. 'No school board can be 
pardoned if they fail to provide the school library with 
these books, and no teacher should expect to succeed with- 
out them. 

Map Drawing. — (1) The "map," as suggested, must 
become the permanent mental back-ground of geography. 
The boy who knows he must draw a certain map studies it 
with greater care, and thus in due time makes it what it 
should be — ^his own. (2) The intermediate pupil should 
draw free-hand all through the course. This kind of draw- 
ing serves practically all the purposes of drawing in the 
study of geography. The drawing of maps " by scale," so 
much emphasized some years ago, is seldom used in ordi- 
nary life. 

Board Work. — (1) Blackboard work can be made a 
most effective exercise in systematic thinking and language. 
(2) The small class should be sent to the board on alternate 
days. If the class is large, half of the members may be 
sent to the board at once, while the other half recite to the 
teacher. When the writing time is up, each writer should 
read, while his classmates and the teacher listen. Mistakes 
should be corrected, and instruction added. (3) Some of 
the board-work should consist of maps, some of it should 
refer to the lesson text, some of it to field work done, etc. 



248 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Oral Work. — (1) The oral should cover pretty much 
the same ground as the written work, but from different 
angles. (2) Topics may be assigned and discussed as an 
exercise in connected thinking and expression, questions 
asked and answered to bring up details or test the prepara- 
tion of the lesson fully, conversations brightened up by 
photographs, and reading from some interesting book may 
be carried on as an inspiration. The teacher and the class 
should both be on the look-out in papers and periodicals for 
current events that can be connected with the lesson of the 
day. The wall map, as said before, should be made the 
partner and thus the future mental stay of all the lessons 
taught. 

Wall Map Drills. — (1) Eeviews may be effectively 
conducted by way of special map-drills. The old and the 
new can thus be organized into permanent possessions and 
significant connections. (2) Much interesting variety may 
be introduced into map-drills. Coast lines may be traced, 
some pupil may be sent on an imaginary voyage and de- 
scribe what he sees and hears, commercial routes may be 
traced, etc. 

Teaching Advanced Geography 

Inasmuch as high school geography is so largely a study 
of cause and effect on a large scale, the method of instruction 
must of course become more and more scientific and com- 
prehensive. The practical deductions should be forced right 
down to the large wholes of human life and conduct. 

Advanced Political Geography. — (1) Eield work some- 
thing like the work attempted in the preceding course 
should be continued, but on larger wholes, and always with 
a definite problem of cause and effect in view. (2) An 
up-to-date high school text-book should be used. This will 
employ the student usefully and serve as thread for the 
teacher and the student. A good geographical magazine 
should belong to the school, luminous books on special 



GEOGRAPHY 349 

topics should be read, and cyclopgedias consulted. (3) 
" Scale '' should become the custom in the drawing of the 
maps. (4) The high school course, like the course before, 
should be massed and organized into the student's mind 
through vigorous map-drills. (5) Logical outlines should 
be adopted and employed in the mastering of lessons and 
the recitation of the same. (6) Board work and oral work 
should supplement each other. A fine large globe should 
be used in connection with the recitations. 

Mathematical Geography. — (1) A thorough and 
detailed explanation of the globe should be undertaken by 
the four year high school. (2) The school should be well 
equipped with the necessary apparatus, such as the tellurian, 
the planetary system, etc. (3) A course in spherical pro- 
jection should accompany the mathematics. 

Commercial Geography. — (1) A real live text-book 
on farming, mining, manufacturing, etc., should be made 
the back-bone of commercial geography. Special stress 
should be laid on the study of transportation lines and the 
markets of the world. The treatment of the subject should 
be largely physiographical and logical. Explanatory maps 
and enriching photographs should accompany the text. (2) 
Wall maps exhibiting the larger truths of the subject 
should be made the backbone of the recitations. (3) The 
student should be taught to consult leading journals, market 
value columns in the papers, etc. (4) A cabinet of com- 
mercial products representing all the larger interests of 
the world is much to be desired. 

Physical Geography. — (1) The course in physical 
geography should run parallel with the other high school 
courses. (2) The text-book used as thread should be log- 
ical, but not so abstract in treatment and so dry in style. 
(3) A good relief globe and relief maps should accompany 
the text-book. (4) The school should own good text-books 
on all those sciences which physiography invades, and with- 
out which it cannot be perfected. The student should be 



250 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

taught to consult these books. (5) Time should be found 
for field ^vork enough to give the book and the globe concrete 
content, and to start the student in intelligent physiographic 
habits for his future. 

The Value of Geography 

As a mental exercise geography is capable of great things. 
The knowledge gained is itself a most important acquisition. 

As a Mental Exercise. — (1) The direct observations 
upon which the teacher of geography must constantly insist, 
make the study a superior exercise for the senses, or per- 
ception. (2) The detailed mental construction of "the 
far " through " the near " combines imagination appercep- 
tively with the memory most effectively. (3) The model- 
ling, free-hand drawing, together with all other modes of 
representing both the near and the far, that should be 
required in geography, correlate the judgment most effec- 
tively with imagination and the memory. (4) The deter- 
mined search after likeness, or type, both of wholes and 
relations, makes geography, especially in higher grades, a 
splendid exercise in scientific reasoning. (5) Conscious 
emphasis on the fundamental fact that geography is the 
study of the earth as man's physical environment, with 
which he must struggle, to which he is bound to adapt 
himself, and which thus makes all men " kin " both in fail- 
ure or success, broadens human sympathy into wider brother- 
hood, and tends to make the individual the citizen of the 
universe. 

As Knowledge. — (1) Geography, as we have seen, en- 
croaches upon many sciences, and thus serves as introduc- 
tion to them all. (2) It is the necessary correlate of history, 
travel, commerce, news, etc. (3) To some extent it is a 
substitute for travel and for history combined. 

Training of the Teacher of Geography. — (1) Exten- 
sive training in the subject itself is the first necessity. Such 
training will put the teacher at ease with himself and his 



GEOGRAPHY 251 

pupils. It will act as inspiration and in consequence as 
stimulus. (2) A thorough knowledge of maps, globes, 
drawing, modelling, etc., is extremely important. (3) Last 
but not least in importance is a thorough understanding of 
the methods and the purposes of out-of-door observations, 
or " field-study." 

The History of Geography 

A complete history of geography, interesting as it might 
be, and suggestive to the teacher, would be quite beyond 
the compass of the present treatise. A glimpse into the 
subject must suffice. 

Famous Writers. — Geography is really as old as history, 
and may be older. Eratosthenes, the librarian of Alex- 
andria, was the first great Greek writer (2Y6-194 B. C). 
He wrote an extensive work which remained in authority 
for two hundred years. " He reconstructed the map of the 
world, used parallels, meridians, and poles, established ^ve 
zones, and with a gnomen measured with considerable accu- 
racy the size of the earth." Strabo (66-24 B. C.) under- 
took to describe the world in seventeen books. He believed 
the earth to be spherical, but immovable, and surrounded by 
the heavens. " Greek Geography reached its highest devel- 
opment in Ptolemy's work, written about 150 A. D." He 
believed the earth to be the centre of the universe. The 
Eoman Pliny and others followed in the footsteps of the 
Greek geographers. 

Mediaeval geography, for reasons which we cannot now 
enumerate, was speculative and fantastic rather than real 
and scientific. The most important authors were Solinus 
and Cosmas. The former culled his matter from Pliny, but 
was chiefly occupied with entertaining " tales about birds, 
beasts, reptiles, etc. ; " the latter wrote a biblical cos- 
mography, and tried to prove with selected texts that the 
earth was not a sphere. 

Toward the close of the 16th century geography began to 



252 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

receive nmcli attention in the schools. In 1582 Michael 
Meander wrote a concise description of the world, and 
pleased the teachers. It was nsed until the middle of the 
17th century. Somewhere in the neighborhood of 1670 
Bernard Varenius wrote his " General Geography '' and 
founded modern physical geography. Humboldt, Ritter, 
and Ritter's disciple Guyot, followed after 1850. 

Jedediah Morse wrote the first American school geogra- 
phy in 1774. In 1856 Cornelius Cartee wrote a very read- 
able school geography. Warren's well-known books came 
in 1872. Frye and others followed in rapid succession. 

History of Methods. — (1) Strabo criticised the 
" ancient geographers." He believed in observation and the 
scientific treatment of the subject, but the Middle Ages 
cared much more for his myths and tales than for his real 
worth. " The discoveries of Copernicus and Galileo and 
the voyages of Columbus and Magellan did much to awaken 
inquiry and stimulate observation of nature." Bacon, 
Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and all impor- 
tant teachers of geography since then, have made observa- 
tion fundamental. (2) These educational reformers have 
also emphasized the great importance of thinking " the 
far" through "the near." (3) "Map sketching arose in 
Greece before text-books were written. The Greeks gave 
much attention to maps. Ptolemy was one of the first to 
make the map central in geography. Many teachers since 
have made the map the centre of instruction, and empha- 
sized map drawing. Basedow and Salzman were the first 
to make large use of pictures and relief maps. We now 
have the use of many methods of representing relief and 
our geographical texts are veritable medleys of pictures. 
The Germans use large wall pictures instead of many pic- 
tures in the text-books. Their atlas is also separate from 
the text. Many American schools are now equipped with 
lanterns and series of slides illustrating the various topics 
and countries considered in the study of geography." (4) 



GEOGRAPHY 253 

" The advance in scientific geography during the past half 
century has been great, and has done much to improve ele- 
mentary methods, but we have erred in trying to force 
children to use the scientific method. The reaction has 
already begun, and must ultimately end in adapting both 
methods and materials to the developing abilities of the 
child." (5) The work of adaptation has begun in real 
earnest. Many schools provide for out-of-door observa- 
tions and excursions. " The recognition and definition of 
land and water forms are learned mainly before the pupil 
begins the regular study of a text-book. The study of the 
text-book is begun with few exceptions with the fourth 
year." Maps and map-making appear most often in con- 
nection with the land and water forms, as early as the third 
year. There is a strong tendency to defer the globe or " the 
earth as a whole " to the fifth year. " In the study of the 
continents, E'orth America stands first, Europe second, and 
South America third." In several cities commercial, mathe- 
matical, and physical geography are studied in the higher 
grammar grades. The adaptations in method are even 
more thoroughgoing. The suggestions of the educational 
reformers are subjected to rigid tests, and are being adopted 
as fast as tested. Genetic psychology has made it possible 
to make the latest tests most convincing. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Educational Reviews, June, 1892, February, 1893. 

2. Pedagogical Seminary, March, 1907. 

3. Present Status of Geography. Am. Education, December, 1907. 



CHAPTER IX 
HISTORY 

The Nature of History 

As said before, the subject to be studied determines the 
mental action, the courses of study, the methods of instruc- 
tion, and the value of the branch. 

The Matter of History. — In the broadest sense all events, 
together with their causes and effects, constitute the matter 
of history. As commonly used the term " history " denotes 
the study of events involving man. The study of events 
involving man has centred largely in warriors and rulers. 
But social customs, occupations, institutions, marked 
achievements in the world of thought, etc., deserve a larger 
share of attention. 

History as Science. — (1) Ordinarily events, together 
with their causes and effects, are ascertained as facts, the 
study ending there. This amounts to observation — noth- 
ing more. (2) "WTien events like wars, treaties, customs, 
institutions, etc., are compared to ascertain the liJcenesses 
of cause and effect, history becomes induction, and rises to 
the dignity of science ; for the likenesses that can be ascer- 
tained are really the laws of human will in action. (3) 
When the citizen shapes his course in the state in conformity 
with laws of cause and effect as found by inductive study 
of events, or the statesman undertakes to forecast events 
by comparing causes now in operation with the causes of the 
past under like conditions, or any man builds his character 
according to the laws of cause and effect as seen in biog- 
raphy, the process is deduction. 

In short, history is really the science of events only when 
by comparison of cases it mounts from facts to principles, 
and applies the principles discovered to the problems of 
the present and the future. 
254 



HISTORY 355 

The Psychology of History 

The study of events is a very interesting mental process. 

Observation. — If the learner could always be where an 
event occurs, observation would of course consist of sense- 
perceptions reinforced by judgment. But, since past and 
far-away events can be studied only ^^ through report," 
imagination must be substituted for perception, as when, 
for example, we mentally place ourselves at William Penn's 
side in the famous treaty scene or cross the Alps with 
Hannibal. 

When the events to be pictured are geographically large, 
when multitudes are involved, and the causal nexus is ob- 
scure, as in the battle of Gettysburg, the study process grows 
difficult. 

Induction. — The possible combinations of cause and 
effect in the sequence of events are so numerous and com- 
plex that perfect likeness, or law, is very hard to prove. 
When, for example, we compare uprisings against estab- 
lished forms of government, we find that the causal com- 
binations differ very startlingly, and that combinations 
which sometimes produced rebellions did not always do so. 
The one thing that has thus far always been found in these 
causal com^binations which produced rebellions is an out- 
raged sense of justice. Slavery, tyranny, " taxation with- 
out representation,'' etc., are examples. Put into syllo- 
gistic form the argument might be stated: 

1. An outraged sense of justice led to all observed rebellions; 

2. The analogy, or likeness, seems to be generic. 

3. An outraged sense of justice will always produce rebellions. 

The first premise of such arguments in history must 
evidently be based upon the widest possible range of exact 
observation, and the second premise must be very modest. 
And yet, unsafe as inductive arguments in history appear 
to be, the maxims that " experience is the best teacher " and 
that ^' history repeats itself " crystallize the well-supported 



256 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

conviction that, after all, men and nations act very much 
the same way nnder exactly the same conditions. 

Deduction. — The one difficulty of deductive arguments 
in history is the difficulty of determining that new causal 
combinations are completely like those causal combinations 
whose effects we already know. The syllogism might be 
stated thus : 

1. Injustice to colonies has always caused resistance. 

2. If England is unjust to India, 

3. Resistance will occur there. 

Great as the probabilities are in support of this con- 
clusion, only the event itself could confirm it. Counter- 
causes never present in past rebellions might keep India 
from rebelling under conditions otherwise completely alike. 
In other words, the first premise is really only a " particu- 
lar " proposition, as we say in logic, so that this apparent 
deduction is only an argument from one particular truth 
to another, and for that reason logically invalid.* 

Theoeies. — Three theories, or explanations, of events 
have originated from the difficulty of determining primary 
and secondary causes. (1) According to some thinkers, 
the Russo-Japanese war of 1904, for example, was the result 
of causal complications over which the combatants had no 
control. This is the "materialistic" theory of history. 
This theory attaches neither praise nor blame to either 
party — holds neither party morally responsible, and is 
therefore wholly out of harmony with the conclusions of 
Christian ethics. (2) According to another fatalistic 
school of philosophy, called " Theists," from the Greek 
word Oeo?^ meaning God, this war was brought about by 
God. The combatants had no choice in the matter ; it was 

* The names of persons, places, etc., without which it would be 
awkward to tell what we picture and think in history must evidently 
be memorized. This is eminently true of dates that help us think 
about lapse of time and causal sequence. 



HISTORY 257 

to be so, and could not be otherwise. This theory is cer- 
tainly a libel on the character of God, and fails to account 
for the moral nature with which we all know we are gifted. 
(3) According to another theory, situations serve as mo- 
tives, God concurs with men and nations, while these, moved 
by situations or by God, act in freedom which makes them 
morally responsible. This is the ^^ Spiritualistic " theory ; 
it accounts for all the facts. The teacher of history that 
does not impress upon his pupils the responsibility of men 
and nations and the final justice of Providence is hardly 
a safe moral guide for boys and girls. 

TEACHING HISTORY 

The subject-matter of history, like the subject-matter of 
other studies, must be distributed into courses. 

History Courses 

The course for beginners should be very interesting. 
The next course should pave the way for larger wholes. 
The last course should be determined by the needs of culture 
and the needs of life. 

Course for Beginners. — As a rule, the child takes much 
interest in the life and doings of the neighborhood to which 
he belongs. The questions which a ten-year-old boy will 
ask about the things w^hich happen round about him show 
that events are more than sights and sounds to him — show 
that he can think causal consequences. With a little pre- 
paratory training in geography, children become interested 
in current events into which they can be transported by 
imagination. The child-life of other lands and other times 
is absorbingly interesting to the average boy and girl. The 
trained teacher will find the necessary lesson-material partly 
in the life of the modern world, and partly in the legends 
that portray the customs, occupations, undertakings, and 
achievements of the human race in its childhood. 
17 



258 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Intermediate Course. — The purpose of the second course 
in history is to supplement the work of the first, or story- 
course, and to pave the way for complex combinations. To 
keep in full control of all the possibilities, interest and 
ease must continue to dominate over use and completeness 
in the choice of lesson-subjects. Hero-history serves all our 
purposes. Those heroes through which we can give learners 
their best " first-view " of history-epochs should, of course, 
be studied first. Around these as centres we must cluster 
secondary heroes and the situations thus produced. The 
events thus introduced dare not be geographically large, the 
multitude involved must not overwhelm imagination, and 
all relations in the sequence of events must be obvious. 

Higher Courses. — To perfect the work for which the 
way was paved in the hero-course, and to add what the larger 
possibilities of study and approaching graduation may re- 
quire, are the special purposes of higher courses. Com- 
plex combinations, such as wars, treaties, industries, and 
institutions, now command full attention. iTations and 
world-epochs must be mastered more and more in detail. 
Laws must be proved inductively, and then applied to 
present problems. 

Lesson Methods in History 

The mental necessities of history determine all the 
methods of preparing and reciting lessons. 

Methods with Beginners. — To serve the purposes in 
hand, both the teacher and the pupil must prepare the 
lessons. 

Preparatiois^s. — (1) The teacher of beginners in his- 
tory must provide himself with the legends and local history 
by means of which he proposes to reach the child's senses 
and the child's heart. Fortunately for the modem teacher 
of beginners, this mass of lesson-materials has been brought 
up to the very school-house door by specialists in history- 
literature. The teacher must, however, not simply provide 



HISTORY 259 

himself with needed lesson-material ; lie must prepare him- 
self to give it to the class in the storj-way. The pictures, 
blackboard, maps, etc., by means of which the child's ima- 
gination, reasoning, and memory are to be reinforced, should 
be ready for use. 

(2) In the story-course of history, beginning before very 
much reading power has been acquired, the pupil should 
not, as a rule, be required to make text-book preparations 
for history-recitations. The class should, however, have 
access to well-written travel-history booklets, such as the 
" Little Journeys '' published by the A. Flanagan Com- 
pany, Chicago, 111. These should be read at leisure times 
and at home. 

Recitations with Begin^nees. — (1) A part of the time 
to be devoted to the recitations of beginners should be spent 
in reviews. While some one tells connectedly what the 
teacher taught on some previous occasion, the rest of the 
class must listen sharply, ever ready to add what may have 
been omitted, always waiting for a question, eager for a 
fuller explanation. As a rule, the pupil should stand grace- 
fully erect while reciting, and speak both plainly and 
fluently. (2) The reviews should be followed by instruc- 
tion. The teacher should strive to give this instruction 
charmingly, threading his way vividly through events from 
cause to effect with as little deviation as possible. Special 
pains should be taken to impress the few necessary dates 
and proper names. (3) Instruction should be followed 
by tests. These tests may consist of questions and oral 
answers, of topics assigned and orally discussed, or, if time 
permits and the class is otherwise prepared, of board assign- 
ments and written answers. The written work should be 
read by the writers, with or without comment, as the teacher 
finds best. 

Methods with Book Classes. — The " book " introduces 
special features, both into lesson preparations and lesson 
recitations. 



960 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Lesson Peeparations. — (1) The teaclier of classes 
using text-books should study the lesson-text. Much con- 
fusion often results from violation of this requirement. To 
inspire text-book classes in history, he must know enough 
to enlarge on every lesson. Supplementary texts and cyclo- 
paedias should therefore be consulted by the teacher, maps 
should be studied, black-board drawings should be prac- 
tised, way-paving and supplementary talks should be pre- 
pared, oral tests should be planned, numbered questions 
should be prepared for black-board work. 

(2) The intermediate class should be required to pre- 
pare assigned lessons by means of text-books specially pre- 
pared for the purpose. In these books the descriptions 
should be delightfully vivid. Pictures and maps should 
heighten this effect. The learner's reasoning should be 
taxed only with the obvious sequence of events, and his 
memory only with epoch-essentials. The habit of studying 
the pictures and maps connected with the lessons should be 
formed as soon as possible. Pupils of this grade should be 
encouraged to read travelogues like those of Burton Holmes, 
published by the McClure Company, 44 East 23rd Street, 
ISTew York, the " Historic Tales," by Morris, published by 
the J. B. Lippincott Company, Washington Square, Phila., 
Pa., and also the biography of great men and great women. 

(3) Advanced classes should master assigned lessons by 
means of an advanced text. The book used should lay con- 
siderable stress on the physiography of events. Additional 
text-books, cyclopaedias, wall-maps, monographs on special 
epochs, etc., are the indispensable aids in the fuller compari- 
sons which advanced pupils ought to be required to make. 
As fast as pupils become mentally ready, they should be 
required to discover likeness, or law, in the course of events, 
and to think of these laws in connection with current events. 
The current events to which newspapers and magazines call 
attention should be connected with the lesson preparations. 
Historical novels like " Eamona," "The Crisis," etc., 
should be found in school libraries. 



HISTORY 261 

(4) The first text-book for general history classes should 
be rather ethnographic than synchronistic in plan, — i.e., 
the story of a nation should not be tangled much with any 
other nations in any given epoch until such synchronistic 
complexity is no longer too hard for the student. Pres- 
ently, however, if the history of any nation is to be under- 
stood in all its epoch-settings, the synchronistic text-book 
becomes a necessity. 

Recitations of Book-classes. — To accomplish the 
usual recitation-purposes, text-book classes should be re- 
quired to do both oral and written work. 

(1) Questions prepared by the teacher, numbered logi- 
cally, should be placed in order in the board-trough. These 
questions, beginning w^th reviews, should exhaust the lesson 
apperceptively and make it necessary for the pupil to use 
those mental faculties which ought to be used in a history 
lesson. (2) At a signal from the teacher the class may 
rise. Having counted off about half the class, he should 
send these to the board, each one to the place indicated by 
the number given and the number at the top of the board. 
Each pupil should write his name at the top of the board 
to which he was sent. Then, picking up the question in the 
board-trough before him, he should write it just as it is and 
as near to the top of the board as possible. A long separa- 
tion line should be drawn under the question. The ques- 
tion should be answered in several headed paragraphs, as 
indicated by underlined words or by other devices. (3) 
When the time to be used by the writers has been con- 
sumed, the board-work should be examined. Each writer 
should read in order, the class paying strict attention. 
Oral questions, important instruction, map drills, criticisms, 
etc., may be connected with this reading. 

While the board-pupils do their work, the rest of the class 
should be engaged in oral work. This oral work may con- 
sist of questions and answers, or topical recitations, but 
should not cover the same ground as the board-work from 



262 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

the same angle, or with the same set of questions, lest the 
writers be tempted to keep one ear open for anything that 
may help to answer the board questions. The recitation 
should close with the assignment of a new lesson, and this 
assignment should be accompanied by such instruction as 
will serve the purposes of the lesson preparations. In case 
of younger book-classes way-paving talks and supplemen- 
tary talks should frequently take the place of the regular 
recitations. These talks, as well as the regular recitations, 
should be reinforced by maps, drawings, photographs, relics, 
etc. 'No books should be allowed in class. 

Value of History 

The study of history is the means to the end in valuable 
culture, and serves most useful purposes in life. 

Culture. — (1) The study of events through report 
makes imagination the first necessary mental action. (2) 
The endeavor to cumulate and classify events upon the 
basis of likeness in cause and effect is a splendid oppor- 
tunity for inductive reasoning. The application of the 
laws thus ascertained affords exercise in practical deduction. 
(3) To be a lasting mental joy the pictures of events which 
the learner builds in his imagination must be permanently 
held in memory. Then, too, the cumulating process of 
inductive reasoning in history depends for success on per- 
fect memory. And to be of use to any one, the laws of his- 
tory as found inductively dare not be forgotten. 

Life. — (1) The study of events "enlarges the naturally 
narrow personal horizon of the young " by transporting 
them, as it were, to other times and other lands. (2) The 
habit of tracing causes to effects in the course of events — 
a habit which good teaching of history develops — can be 
ripened into the highly profitable discovery of laws in war, 
politics, economics, finance, morals, etc. This inductive 
vigilance prepares for deductive foresight in citizens, states- 
men, and men as men. (3) Above all, as thinkers like 



HISTORY 263 

Luther, Arnold, Carlyle, Schmidt, and Bunsen saw, the 
mind that sweeps through many centuries and many lands 
comes to realize the law of final justice in the providence 
of God. This moral and religious appeal is worth infinitely 
more to the average boy and girl in their " teens " than for- 
mal lessons in morals and religion. It is more picturesque, 
dramatic, concrete. 

If, however, the study of events is to have these cultural 
and practical results, the matter to be taught must really be 
an epitome of life, and the learner must be required to 
master this epitome with realistic reason. The learner 
should not be allowed to " commit " the language of the 
text in use. The necessary drudgery of learning names and 
dates should be lightened whenever this can be done without 
injuring the feeling of ^^ passing time '^ in the course of 
events or the credit which belongs to persons and places in 
relating events. 

Training of History Teachers. — The possibilities of 
history as a means to ends in developing the mind and 
fitting boys and girls for life, depend very largely upon the 
history-teacher. (1) The teacher of the story course and 
the hero course in history must know the necessary lesson- 
matter, and the most effective modes of presentation. (2) 
To make the history-class think the causal nexus in a course 
of events, as the Revolution of the American Colonies, the 
teacher must know the European history that led up to the 
Eevolution. (3) To make the study of immigration, terri- 
torial expansion, money panics, etc., inductive comparisons, 
the teacher must know the instances to be compared. (4) 
To make the inductive discovery of likenesses or laws 
effective, the teacher must be able to think inductive con- 
clusions deductively into problems of character-building, 
citizenship, and statesmanship. (5) To make history 
stand for its highest moral possibilities the teacher must 
emphasize the freedom of action in men and nations, and 
thus develop the sense of moral responsibility together with 



364. MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

respect for the final justice of Providence. (6) The pros- 
pective history-teacher must secure such training partly in 
the higher courses offered in the course of his academic 
or collegiate education, and partly in the ISTormal school. 

The History of History 

The evolution of history and the place which history has 
won in schools are both deeply interesting. 

Evolution of History. — History began with hero-tales, 
or legends, and epic poetry. As far back as the Chaldean 
Sargon, kings caused records of their reign, or at least of 
grand achievements, to be made. The kings of the Tigris- 
Euphrates valley caused clay-tablet records to be made; 
those of the Nile resorted to hieroglyphic inscriptions on 
monumental pyramids or papyrus scrolls. Many of these 
ancient records have been deciphered. The Greeks and 
Romans have left us very complete accounts of their 
achievements and civilization. Until about the middle of 
the 19th century A.D. historians made no scientific at- 
tempts to " explain " events. History began to become a 
science through such writers as the French Guizot in the 
reigii of Louis Philippe. It is only within the last fifty 
years that inductive and deductive comparison of causes and 
effects have been somewhat successfully accomplished. 

The Place of History in School Programs. — The study 
of events did not have a very conspicuous place in the 
schools of the ancients. Only those who belonged to the 
ruling and priestly castes studied history. The place which 
history occupied in the school systems of the Middle Ages 
was very humble indeed. Until it began to become a 
science, educational critics like Alexander Bain and Herbert 
Spencer relegated history to the rear as means to ends in 
education. Now that history has become a search after 
likeness or law in the course of events, thus leading to 
better citizenship, to better statesmanship, and to better 
moral insight into Providence, it has begun to occupy a 



HISTORY QQ5 

proud place in popular as well as in higher education. The 
study of history has made its biggest strides in the schools 
of Germany and France, where it has become decidedly 
comparative, or scientific, in presentation. It is only lately 
that history is beginning to occupy its proper place in the 
schools of the United States. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Educational Review, May, 1891, November, 1894, April, 1895, 
Dec., 1895, Sept., 1896, Dec, 1898, Feb., 1899, Dec, 1899. 

2. Pedagogical Seminary, September, 1905. 

3. N. E. A. Reports, 1889, 1895, 1897, 1902, 1905, 1907. 



CHAPTER X 
DRAWING 

The Nature of Drawing 

IisT drawing, as in other branches, the matter to be studied 
determines the courses and methods. 

The Subject Matter of Drawing. — (1) The first mental 
object, or object of attention, in drawing is the outline, or 
form, of sensible objects and movements, as faces and 
swinging, for example. (2) The second mental object, or 
object of attention, in drawing, is the representing process 
of which drawing reallj consists, together with the necessary 
physical positions and movements, as when we stand a<\ 
at a blackboard and represent a hat as falling thus: ^ 

Briefly summing up, we may say that Drawing is the 
process of representing objects to the eye as one thinhs 
about them or as they themselves appear to the eye. 

Species of Drawing. — (1) When the draughtsman does 
not help himself with ruler, compass, etc., it is known as 
^' Free-hand Drawing." (2) If such helps are used, the 
drawing process is known as " Mechanical Drawing." (3) 
When the effect of distance is expressed by means of con- 
verging and receding lines, it is known as " Perspective 
Drawing." (4) When the purpose of drawing is to serve 
the useful arts, such as carpentry, masonry, etc., it is called 
^^ Industrial Drawing." Industrial drawing may be " Con- 
ventional " or " Inventional " ; it may be " perspective," 
and is usually "mechanical." (5) Wlien drawing is 
" used in the service of the fine arts, or beauty," it be- 
comes either " Ornamental " or " Artistic," and may be 
either " conventional " or inventional. Inventional draw- 
ing is commonly known as " Designing." " Painting," 
from the use of colors, and " Engraving," from the use of 
special tools and materials, are varieties of drawing. (6) 
Geographical Drawing is known as " Map Drawing." 
266 



DRAWING 267 

The Psychology of Drawing 

Within the last twenty years both experimental and 
genetic psychology have made most valuable contributions 
to the pedagogy of drawing. 

Observation. — (1) Pure form, or outline, as specialists 
have proved conclusively, cannot be directly perceived; it 
must be inferred from color-values, as the case of cured 
blind persons first suggested. (2) As a sense impression, 
" pure form " is so much found in company with other sense 
impressions, such as motion, tone and touch, that we seldom 
recognize even intimate friends or familiar objects by " pure 
feature " alone. To become an adept in discerning form, 
one must really resort to deliberate and persistent exercise 
in such discernment. (3) The principal reason why most 
of us have not acquired the power of acute discernment is 
because in childhood, and ever since, most of us have not 
felt the need of such discernment. We could get along 
without it in the ordinary course of life. This neglect of 
course becomes mental habit, and, unless corrected, it arrests 
development. (4) The discernment of feature, or form, 
can be gi-eatly promoted, at least in early years, by observ- 
ing imitative representations of such features, or forms; 
but at first and for quite a long time the features of the 
objects to be observed should be so striking, and the repre- 
sentation of such features so evident in purpose that there 
can be no mistake in the learner's mind. 

Induction. — (1) Attention to form as a quality of 
objects leads to comparison of forms, and this to the dis- 
covery that forms — all forms indeed — are easily classified 
under a few heads, as sphere, cube, cylinder, cone, and pyra- 
mid, or derivatives from these. These likenesses, or 
" types," may accordingly be called the " laws of form." 
(2) Attention to direction, length and expanse of lines in 
the drawing process leads to comparison of modes in repre- 
senting direction, length, and expanse, and this comparison 



26S MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

in turn leads to the discovery that convergent and receding 
lines will always represent direction in perspective, as in 
drawing railroad pictures ; that the proportions of an object 
to be represented can be faithfully maintained in the draw- 
ing by adopting the same proportions in the lengths of the 
lines employed, as in drawings used by architects ; and that 
the sensible character of surface can always be represented 
by expanse of line or color, as in shading, description of 
grain of wood, painting, etc. These three linear likenesses, 
or types, may be called respectively the laws of " perspec- 
tive,'' ''scale," and ''shading"; or, the "line-laws" of 
drawing. 

The learner is prone to close his mental eye too soon to 
new possibilities in selecting what should become habitual 
in perspective, scale, and shading. If, for example, the 
converging lines employed in his early lessons in perspective 
always meet in the same way, as in drawing railroads, wood 
paths, etc., he will drop mentally into that perspective style; 
if the faces of people represented in his early lessons are 
always profiles, that will tend to become the style ; if he uses 
inches for yards, that may grow to be the habit ; if he shades 
his pictures on the right side, that may become the tendency. 
This arrest of development must of course be met by 
remedies. 

Deduction. — (1) Deduction in drawing is, on the side 
of the mind, the analysis of objects into known type forms, 
together with the rei^resentation of form facts in objects 
or movements, on the side of execution, in obedience to the 
laws of perspective, scale, and shading. (2) The possi- 
bilities of arresting development at various stages of im- 
perfect induction, makes abundant deduction a mistake be- 
fore the epoch of accurate technique. 

The Physiology of Drawing 

It is a question whether the pedagogy of drawing owes 
more to modern psychology or to modem physiology. 



DRAWING 269 

The Pupil's Eye. — (1) It has been proven very con- 
clusively that drawing is capable of great abuses to the 
eye. (2) It has also been shown just as conclusively that 
many bad results can be prevented by reasonable precau- 
tions. Among these precautions are the following: The 
light should come from the left and from above; it should 
not be blinding nor dim. The drawing period should end 
before eye-fatigue sets in. Suspicious eyes should be tested 
by the oculist, and, if need be, supplied with proper 
glasses. All board-work set for copy should be definite 
and large. When drawing at the board, the pupil should 
not be allowed to bring his face too near the board. All 
eye-straining methods of drawing, " especially the so-called 
Stuhlman method which consists of drawing by the aid of a 
net work of fine lines, points, and the like " for g-uiding 
purposes, must of course be avoided. 

Body Positions. — (1) Comfortable desks and seats 
should be provided. (2) The sitting posture should be 
comfortably upright and adapted to the purposes. (3) 
The forearms should rest lightly on the desk, and the hands 
should almost meet on the writing surface. 

Pencil-Holding. — (1) The pencil should be long 
enough to let it rest against the hand between the thumb 
and forefinger. (2) The pencil should be grasped about 
an inch from the drawing point. (3) In preparatory 
sketching the pencil should meet the writing surface at a 
small acute angle, but, in " filling in," almost at right 
angles. (4) Prepared drawing pencils should be used. 
(5) The colored crayons should be absolutely free from 
poisons; mouth, nose, and eyes should be guarded from 
the dust that may arise. 

Drawing Movements. — (1) Statistics show that large 
free movements are easier at first than small constrained 
movements, and that curves are easier than straight lines. 
(2) We should therefore proceed from the former to the 
latter in requirements, and the blackboard with its great 



270 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

capacity for the former should be used much more than 
the tablet. 

Plenty of Practice. — (1) It has been conclusively 
proved by physiologists that in the ripening of muscular 
control visual impulse gains rapidly over muscular impulse. 
In other words the will is reinforced more by the eye than 
by the muscular sense in the process of getting fuller and 
fuller control of the muscles. (2) The eye should there- 
fore be allied strongly with the will in drawing lessons, 
and there should be plenty of practice. 

Courses of Drawing 

Modern psychology shows that not apperception, but 
dominating interests, pointing to ripening capacities, should 
be emphasized in organizing drawing courses. The neces- 
sary readjustments will be completely consistent with all 
the ordinary interests of utility. 

Course for Beginners. — (1) Up to the age of nine, 
as statistics show, children care most of all for dramatic 
situations. This interest centres most of all in stories 
radiating round the human figure. Imaginations involving- 
animals, plants, and houses are quite acceptable. " Still 
life" stories please very much. Mechanical inventions, 
geometric designs, and ornament attract only the unusual 
child. Coupled with this dominating interest in story-life, 
or happenings, is an absolute and unflinching courage to 
draw anything and everything that belongs to the story-life. 
In all such cases the ability to draw what the child so 
courageously attempts to draw evidently comes with the 
ripened impulse. The " complex '' of adult apperception 
seems to be ignored with impunity by courage such as this. 
Imagination here over-rides all else. The command to pay 
attention to the features of an object to be drawn may be 
followed by a hurried and disdainful glance, but the inter- 
iiiption over, the story-drawing child will eagerly continue 
to express to the eye what he has in mind relating to the 



DRAWING 271 

object rather than the thing he could see before him. Ob- 
jects not related to the story win next to no attention. (2) 
Only one conclusion can be fairly drawn: What beginners 
need is a courageous course in rude representation of child- 
imaginations, dramatic happenings, etc., rather than a course 
in drawing from the object directly. The story-literature 
now so plentiful, together with the story-lessons of the 
ordinary school readers, and the inventions of the teacher, 
should furnish abundant material. 

The Intermediate Course. — The intermediate course in 
drawing should begin in the neighborhood of the age of ten 
or eleven and continue through the grammar school. (1) 
From about the age of nine to thirteen other interests begin 
to gain upon the interest in story-life or happenings. The 
real object itself becomes more and more important 
to the mind, and the drawing must be more and 
more representative. Details of feature are emphasized 
more and more. This emphasis on details, however, leads 
the child at times to include in the picture what he can- 
not see at the time, as when he draws both eyes in a profile 
face, or the inside of a box, or the hat pin through an apple, 
etc. The courage of the story-drawing epoch slowly gives 
way to self-consciousness, and the " complex " of adult 
apperception is less and less ignored. The ripening interest 
in objective details is coupled with rapidly ripening control 
of the drawing muscles. (2) The course for these years 
should therefore be based more and more on present sense- 
perceptions. The drawing should be free-hand to prevent 
fatal arrest of development in courage and imagination. 
Accuracy, or faithfulness to details, should be encouraged, 
but it should not be magnified in importance. The gradual 
ripening of motor control, together with pure form, beauty, 
use, and other interests, suggest introductions to geometric 
types, easy perspective, water colors, conventional orna- 
mentation, mechanical drawing as related to the tasks of 
manual training, and free-hand map-drawing in connection 
with geography, etc. 



372 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Advanced Course. — (1) A new courage is usliered in 
with adolescence; it is commonly coupled with the strong 
determination to succeed at any cost. The many interests, 
such as those of pure form, beauty, use, etc., which nature 
held in abeyance up to the early teens, now become intensi- 
fied and must be recognized. (2) Technique should evi- 
dently now be emphasized. A strenuous combination course 
in designing, perspective, industrial and mechanical draw- 
ing, map-drawing by scale, painting, engraving, etc., may be 
taken up by those who have the time and the opportunity. 

TEACHING DRAWING 

As in other branches, so in drawing, the relation of the 
subject-matter to the learner, should determine not only 
the course but also the methods of instruction. 

Material Equipment 

The necessary story-literature should be abundantly pro- 
vided by the school. The supplementary readers, as well 
as the recitation readers, should contain some of this litera- 
ture. Plenty of good blackboard surface and regulation 
drawing tablets, together with the necessary crayon, pencils, 
rules, compass, etc., should of course be provided. The 
" copy supplying '' drawing book is a relic of the past. 
It is too dead to serve as an approach to the " story child's " 
imagination, and it tends to arrest growth in direct sense- 
perception. The drawing room should be furnished with 
a collection of interesting plaster of paris models, geometri- 
cal forms, natural history specimens, products of fine art 
and manufacture, etc. The room and the desks and the 
seats should be suited to the purpose. 

Methods with Beginners 

Recitations in any branch are more likely to be pointed 
as to means and ends when right preparations precede. 



DRAWING 273 

Preparations. — With beginners in drawing the brunt 
of the preparation falls on the teacher. 

The Teacher's Preparations. — (1) The teacher should 
choose the story to be drawn and prepare to use it with 
effect. (2) He should see to it that the materials to be 
used are in shape and in place. (3) He should make all 
the necessary hygienic preparations. 

The Beginner's Preparations. — (1) When the begin- 
ner grows a little older he may be requested to find a story 
or occurrence that he thinks he can draw. (2) He may 
be asked to try his hand on such selections between recita- 
tions. (3) He may be encouraged to furnish " still life " 
materials in accordance with directions. (4) He should 
come to class with tablet, pencil, water color outfit, or 
colored crayon outfit, if so required by the school, and his 
hands should be clean. 

Recitations with Beginners. — (1) There are several 
ways of starting in with a class of beginners. The teacher 
may request some member of the class to tell about little 
incidents, and show how to sketch these incidents, using 
nothing but suggestive lines, dots, etc., as in telling how the 
Brownies marched across the little hill. The teacher may 
begin the lesson with the telling of a well-selected story, 
which he may then pleasantly ask a piece of crayon to tell by 
means of lines, dots, and marks. (2) After that the chil- 
dren try to tell another crayon story or describe other inci- 
dents. (3) The attention of the child should be called to 
such incongruities as six fingers on a hand, two eyes on a 
profile face, arms longer than the body, etc., and the invi- 
tation given to correct such mistakes; but the child should 
not be pressed too hard. (4) A happy mood should be 
cultivated. (5) The rules of hygiene must be obeyed. 
(6) After the first few lessons the courage of the class will 
rise to almost any situation. Subsequent recitations will 
differ from each other only in the content of the story or the 
interest that attaches to corrections of mistakes. The recita- 
ls 



274, MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

tions may begin with a story told by mouth and end with the 
crayon or the pencil telling it often enough to suit the 
corrections, or they may consist of a crayon-story by the 
pupil, an attempted interpretation by the teacher, and a 
free telling of the story by the pupil. 

Johnny and the Ked Wing. — (1) Once upon a time 
a little boy whose name was Johnny, and who lived near a 
meadow, saw a pretty red-winged bird in the meadow. He 
ran after it and tried to catch it. But it flew so high that 
he could not watch where he ran. A little way ahead there 
was a creek. All at once something happened. Who can 
tell what it was? (Mary raises her hand and tells.) 
(Turning to the board) I will let the crayon tell what hap- 
pened. (The class is pleased.) Whose crayon can tell 
how Johnny looked before he reached the creek? (Paul 
undertakes the job, but fails to tell all that the teacher 
wants. ) Suggestions follow, and the story grows better. A 
few incongruities are noticed and corrected, and the lesson 
may be brought to a close, or continued. Sometimes a story 
is so full of dramatic situations that it may be used for many 
recitations. The lesson may be made to consist of ques- 
tions leading to imaginations, which should be drawn, as 
when the teacher asks, Who can make a boy climb a fence ? 
Who can make a cat run after a mouse? Who can put a 
flower-pot on the table ? etc. 

Intermediate Methods 

The methods to be used with pupils of the grammar 
grades must of course be siiited to the new relations. 

Preparations. — The complex relations that arise in the 
course of drawing for the grammar grades call for very 
detailed preparations. 

The Teacher's Peepaeations. — (1) The teacher of the 
intermediate class in drawing must choose the objects to be 
used in the recitations. He must practice " placing " them 



DRAWING 975 

to prevent confusion in the observation of the outlines. (2) 
He must think out a recitation plan. (3) All the important 
and hygienic provisions must be made with judgment. 

Pkeparations by the Pupils. — (1) The pupil may be 
required to assist in preparing the room, the board, the 
pencils, etc. He may take part in bringing and the placing 
of the objects, models, etc. (3) He may be required to 
draw for practice between recitations and according to 
directions. 

The Intermediate Recitation. — (1) The first thing to 
do is to cause effective form-observation of the object or the 
drama to be represented. To some extent this task can be 
accomplished by first calling attention to certain features 
of the object and the teacher then drawing. Temporary 
resort to this device may be permissible at first, as an apper- 
ceptive approach to pure form, or outline, but to make a 
practice of it is really vicious ; it centres attention too much 
in the teacher's drawing of the object, and thus hinders or 
arrests growth in attending to the form features of objects 
themselves. The more effective way to emancipate the 
drawing pupil, though it may be just a little slower, is to 
centre the attention on the form-features of the object itself. 
(2) This direct form-observation should be followed at 
once by courageous free-hand attacks upon the object by 
the pupil. Incongruities should be corrected. (3) Ac- 
curacy should be emphasized a little more every week with- 
out tyranny. (4) There must be much repetition in type 
work in order to perfect muscular control, but the repetitions 
should be brightened very much by introducing variations. 
This will prevent arrest of development in observing power. 
(5) Geometric type forms must become the under-current 
of the course increasingly. These must be observed, con- 
verted into forms of art and nature, and recognized in the 
child's surroundings. (6) The map-drawing lessons must 
be correlated with the requirements of the grade in 
geography. 



376 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Typical lessons are appended to illustrate the spirit and 
the method to be used. 

Drawing from the Object Drawn. — The object 
chosen for the present lesson is a broad brimmed high 
crowned hat. Its relation to the human figure and its 
graceful lines win attention. (1) What kind of a line did 
I draw in the air around the crown of this hat ? A circle. 
AVatch me draw the shape. (He draws a circle somewhat 
like an ellipse.) What kind of motions did I use to show 
the height of the crown ? Straight up and down motions. 
I will draw. (He draws.) What kind of line will show 
the shape and size of the rim, Mary? A much larger 
circle than the one for the crown. (It is well to ask some 
one to complete the picture.) The teacher puts on all the 
finishing touches that he cannot get the pupils to attempt. 
Other hats should now be tried. View-points should be 
varied. The hat should be placed on the table, on a nail 
in the wall, etc., and all these new situations should be 
drawn by the pupils, helped if need be, by the teacher, and 
corrected by suggestions. 

Drawing from the Object Studied. — A basket full 
of apples placed upon a table is used for the present lesson. 
(1) The teacher calls attention to the striking features of 
the objects taken by themselves and in relation to each other. 
He will succeed best in this attempt by using well-directed 
questions. (2) As soon as he finds the pupils eager to 
attempt the task, he should give the word, and let them go. 
If well prepared by the object-observation and the questions 
on relations, the class will draw the table first, place the 
basket just where it should be, and fill it up with apples. 
(3) Incongruities must be corrected. (4) The " composi- 
tion " must be brightened up a little just to give it life. 
The picture may be developed by appropriate additions. 
Line accuracy should be emphasized sufficiently. (5) 'New 
attempts may be introduced if the recitation period permits, 
or, if the case demands it, the subject may be continued 
into other recitations. 



DRAWING 377 

A Lesson iisr Peespective.— A crayon box will be used 
in the present lesson. (1) (Holding the box before her so 
that she sees only the end surface.) How much of the box 
can you see, Maude ? Only one end. What is its shape ? 
A square. (Turning to the board, he draws a square with 
the side to be drawn in sight.) How many faces can you 
see now, Mary ? Two, the one you drew, and the top face. 
(Turning to the board, he draws the top face by first making 
a dot at some distance to the right or left of the upper line 
of the square, and then drawing the edges of the face by 
starting from the corners of the square toward the dot, 
or vision point. After that he completes the top face. He 
explains the converging lines of the top face by comparing 
it with the appearance of convergence in railroad tracks, and 
calls it " Perspective." (Holding the box to suit the pur- 
pose.) How many faces do you see, Mary? Three. 
Please draw the new side, Mary. (This is the pedagogical 
crisis. If the top-face was skilfully taught, it will serve 
as apperceptive preparation for the drawing of the new 
face, and Mary will complete the new face with triumph 
written all over her countenance.) (2) A string of boxes 
similarly drawn by the teacher, but adapted to his purposes 
in size, relative proportions, etc., must next be converted 
by the teacher into all sorts of well-known objects such as 
books, chairs, tables, etc. This process reveals the cube 
in perspective as a law of astonishing significance in art and 
nature. (3) The class must now be required to explore 
the world around them to find examples. Some of these 
must be drawn. (4) Incongruities will still occur. (5) 
Practice Avill be needed to perfect hand-control. (6) The 
box-like things to be drawn must be placed in all the nine 
possible perspective points to prevent arrest of development 
in drawing new things of the same sort. (7) The technical 
terms to be learned in connection with perspective must be 
gradually introduced. 

The Cylindee. — A tomato can will be used in the pres- 



278 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

ent lesson. The student of this chapter will know why. 
(1) The "can'' should be held before the face of some 
one in such position that the circular top and the curving 
body can be seen. It should then be drawn. If the pupil 
draws the invisible half of tlie bottom circle, he must be 
made to see the incongruity. (2) A whole string of cylin- 
ders, adapted to the teacher's purpose like the boxes, should 
be turned into well-known objects. When the composition 
is complete it may be a pump with water running into a 
bucket standing on a floor, etc. This inductive device will 
be far-reaching. (3) Deductive inventions should follow 
as practice. Light and shadow must be taught. 

Intermediate Map-Drawing. — The free-hand map- 
drawing of the intermediate course is comparatively easy. 
(1) The first thing to do is to teach the learner how to get 
the details of the map into his mind in right relations. 
These details include the boundaries, relief, centres of 
population, latitude and longitude, etc. (2) If the modes 
of representing these have been mastered, the map-in-the- 
head need simply be transferred to the board. The various 
geographical features represented by the map should be 
accompanied by names. 

High School Methods 

In the high school, both the learner and the necessary 
course modify and supplement the methods of the grammar 
grades. Among the things to be emphasized are the 
following : 

Technic. — The final phases of all species of drawing 
are highly mathematical. Symmetry, proportion, grace 
and repose, with other qualities of use and beauty, are the 
chief concerns. 

Accuracy. — Both for " beauty's " sake and for the sake 
of '^ use," the tasks of high school drawing must be per- 
formed with mathematical exactitude. And this require- 



DRAWING 279 

ment of art is emphasized by the needs of adolescence. The 
necessity of accuracy in the high school subordinates free- 
hand to mechanical drawing to a large extent. 

Invention. — Both the self-emancipating impulses of 
adolescence and the interests of livelihood emphasize in- 
vention in high school drawing. Exercises in constructing 
draughts, accompanied by full and exact instructions for 
their use in building operations, are called for. Ornamental 
designing should be very much encouraged. 

Recitations. — The method and the spirit of the high 
school recitation in drawing must be very largely the method 
and the spirit of mathematics. (1) The assignment of 
tasks resembles that of problems in arithmetic, and the 
execution of the tasks resembles that of geometry. (2) 
Demonstrations will be necessary. (3) The occasional 
construction of tasks on the part of the teacher takes the 
place of former illustrations. 

Value of Drawing 

The subject matter of drawing, together with the neces- 
sary methods, make drawing a most valuable means in 
education. 

As a Mental Exercise. — (1) Taught by modern teachers 
the drawing of the lower grades promotes imagination that 
conserves, defines, and extends child-life experience as it 
should in the epochs involved. (2) Eree-hand drawing 
combines judgment with a muscular control that serves 
both the interests of culture and of life. (3) Drawing 
affords the pleasure which always comes with expressive 
language, a thing which drawing is to the highest degree. 
(4) By and by the better understanding which the draw- 
ing pupil gets of artistic effort leads to high appreciation 
of the beautiful and perfect in the arts. 

Life Values. — (1) Both the expressive power and the 
appreciating power of the drawing-trained pupil add to his 



280 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

happiness. (2) The ability to draw, as a means in lan- 
guage, helps teachers very much in other branches:* (3) 
Taste, judgment, muscular control, etc., are valuable means 
to success in the making of a livelihood. 

Training of the Drawing Teacher. — (1) The drawing 
teacher needs a very complete course in drawing. He will 
need this training to enable him both to imderstand the 
pedagogy of drawing and to teach others what he knows. 

(2) The public schools will of course put him on the way. 
The ISTormal school and the special school must undertake 
the rest of his training. 

The History of Drawing 

The history of drawing is almost identical with the his- 
tory of art and invention. 

National History. — Drawing was one of the earliest 
languages. The hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptians, 
for example, were skeleton pictures used as words. The 
Greeks cultivated drawing as the handmaid of beauty, and 
Rome valued drawing as a useful art, employing all the 
genius of invention in her vast engineering conquests. 
Modem nations gather up the purposes of all the past in 
drawing. 

In the School Curriculum. — (1) The priestly classes 
of ancient Egypt and the valley of the Tigris-Euphrates 
emphasized drawing in their course of training. (2) The 
free Greek and the high bom Roman found this branch 
in his curriculum, and became an adept in its possibilities. 

(3) The mediaeval church high schools for boys combined 
instruction in drawing with instruction in geometry. (4) 
In the schools of modern Europe drawing has become an 
integral part of popular as well as higher education. The 
European schools of technology offer most extensive courses 
under most efficient teachers. (5) In the towns and cities 
of the United States the inclusion of drawing in the school 



DRAWING 281 

curriculum has become the rule. (5) The rural schools 
still hang behind. The training of teachers and progress 
in civilization will soon make drawing compulsory in the 
rural schools. 

Pedagogical Progress. — (1) Logic ruled supreme for 
centuries in course and method. Modem psychophysics 
undertakes to harmonize both the courses and the methods 
of instruction with genetic needs. The loss to logic is abun- 
dantly made up by gain in '^ life." 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Educational Review, May, 1897, Oct., 1897. 

2. Pedagogical Seminary, Dec, 1893, Sept., 1902, Sept., 1907. 

3. Why Drawing Should Be Taught in the Public Schools. Thomp- 
son, N. E. A. Report, 1877. 



CHAPTER XI 
MANUAL TRAINING 

The Nature of Manual Training 

The subject-matter of manual training is so largely 
dependent on purposes, or ends in view, that these must be 
determined first of all. 

Definition of Manual Training. — To include any study 
in the school curriculum simply as gymnastics, whether 
physical or mental, is no longer permissible. The great 
majority of present-day boys and girls must take up the 
battle of life at an early age, and woe to those who are 
compelled to take up bread-winning vocations without 
special training. Then, too, it has been proved that voca- 
tional training, except where it becomes automatic, is not 
necessarily an inferior cultural training. We must accord- 
ingly define manual training as the educational use of hand- 
tools for life-vocations. The materials needed for this com- 
bination-purpose will, as always, determine both the courses 
to be followed and the methods to be used. 

The Subject of Manual Training. — (1) Physical con- 
struction presupposes planning or mental conception ; some- 
body must ^^ think " the thing to be made before it is made. 
The thought may be embodied in a " model " or expressed 
by means of " draughts," or " designs,'' as in architecture. 
(2) The selection of materials follows. Whether paper, 
clay, wood, brass, or iron, should be used, will depend on 
the qualities of these as means to ends. (3) Tools, like 
materials, must be selected as means to ends. Wliere the 
scissors, knife, gimlet, hammer, saw, or plane, will not do 
the file, vise, or something else may be just the thing. (4) 
The actual construction of the thing proposed is a psycho- 
physical process in which the will combines with eye- 
282 



MANUAL TRAINING 283 

judgment to accomplish with the hand and tool whatever has 
been undertaken. The finished thing may he a geometrical 
form, a clay ball, a picture frame, etc. 

The Psychology of Manual Training 

The mental action to which manual training gives rise 
is like that of writing, drawing, or any other art. 

Observation. — (1) The ^' model " by which the worker 
is to be guided may have to be measured. This will require 
accurate perception. The " draught " accompanied by de- 
tailed instructions will appeal powerfully to creative imag- 
ination. " Designing " is a strenuous exercise in creative 
conception. (2) The selection of materials and tools as 
means to ends in an act of judgment amounting to causal 
reasoning, as when we choose the half-inch augur to bore a 
hole for an iron bolt through oak wood. 

Induction. — (1) The selection of materials and tools as 
means to ends leads to comparison of results, and thus be- 
comes an inductive search after law, as when we learn to 
use the different kinds of saws to get results in wood. (2) 
Coupled with inductive search after law, is the tendency 
to correlate muscular control with eye-judgment until such 
correlation becomes perfect habit, as in clay-modelling or 
wood-carving. 

There is a very pronounced tendency to jump at con- 
clusions in the search after law, and a rapidly accumulating 
satisfaction with attained perfections in hand-work, both of 
which end in arrest of development unless the tendency 
is counteracted by the persevering introduction of the 
" new '' into all the tasks that otherwise would seem to be 
" alike.'' 

Deduction. — (1) Up to the age of fifteen or sixteen, as 
genetic psychology shows, the interests of mental growth 
require a predominance of induction over deduction. This 
subordination of deduction to induction into which, as sug- 
gested, the "new" is persistently introduced, prevents 



284 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

arrest of intellectual development and serves as a stimulus 
to individuality. (2) In the last two years of the high 
school the mechanical skill so much needed in the life to 
v^hich the pupil may be destined should be developed by 
abundant practice in every task. In other v^^ords, " varia- 
tion '' should be more and more eliminated from repeated 
tasks in the latter years of the high school. 

Physiology of Manual Training 

Recent scientific investigations shov7 that manual train- 
ing is capable of grievous physiological offences. 

The Eye. — The necessity of v^orking " to a point " or 
" to a line " is a strain on the eye. The manual training 
room should therefore be properly lighted, the pupils should 
be rightly placed v^^ith respect to windows or sky-lights, and 
the tasks should not be pushed to the point of eye-fatigue. 

Posture and Movements. — Eagerness to see well and to 
do well in working to a line or point prompts the pupil to 
assume back-breaking and other injurious positions, as in 
sawing wood, and to resort to neck-twisting, muscle-cramp- 
ing and other serious movements, as in boring or knife- 
work. These results are extremely likely in the latter 
stages of manual training when the value of the finished 
article comes to be emphasized above the gymnastic or cul- 
ture effects. Effective teaching will reduce such offence 
to the minimum. 

Injuries from Tools. — To serve their purposes in work- 
ing to a line or point, tools must be reasonably sharp. 
Hand-control is uncertain when the saw is dull ; the result 
may be a waste of costly wood. Besides this the best of 
workers lose time with tools that do not work well. But 
sharp tools, such as knives, hatchets, planes, and saws are 
dangerous. The careless boy may hurt himself and others 
near him. The chemistry-room is hardly more dangerous 
than the manual training room in charge of inefficient teach- 
ers. Vigilance and caution will do much to prevent bad 
results. 



MANUAL TRAINING 385 

Courses in Manual Training 

The ends in view in manual training require an adjust- 
ment of the task first of all to the pupil but after that to 
life as it is to-daj and will be to-morrow. Nor should 
the two requirements conflict with each other. 

Course for Beginners. — (1) Scientific study of such 
instincts as sense-hunger, construction, realistic imitation, 
and the like, show that ISTature requires the child to pass 
to the abstract through the concrete, and endeavors to usher 
the child rapidly into the constructive heritage of his race. 
The transition to the abstract through the concrete can be 
most effectively promoted through hand-work because it 
brings the child into experimental sense-contact with the 
qualities of physical environment. Its constructive appeal 
to the realistic impulse makes manual training the most 
powerful agency in the child's struggle to acquire the attain- 
ments of his race. (2) When the corrections which modem 
child-study finds necessary to make are made, Froebel's 
kindergarten exercises are admirably adapted to the pur- 
poses of manual training in the early education of the child. 
The child's course in manual training should accordingly 
consist of carefully selected exercises in block-building, 
modelling in sand and clay, colored needle work, laying 
sticks, folding and cutting paper, whittling with the knife, 
weaving, and the like. The drawing, writing, language, 
and plays which belong to this period may often be effec- 
tively correlated with this selected hand-work. 

Intermediate Manual Training. — (1) Among the dom- 
inant interests of the child from ten or eleven to fourteen 
or fifteen years of age are constructive and social imi- 
tation, competitive and useful invention, and the like. All 
these, as Froebel saw long ago, are seen in mass combina- 
tions in the institutional plays to which boys and girls 
constantly resort. In these interests Nature is evidently 
proposing the many-sided rapid education of the mind in 



286 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

connection with the body. Much of the energy so com- 
monly wasted through the years now in question can be 
saved for boys and girls alike by giving them the hand- 
w^ork which the case suggests. (2) Among the exercises 
that are best adapted to the ends in view, as clearly shown 
by the Swedes, are the making of the geometrical forms, 
the materials to be used being either paper, card-board, or 
wood. All the hand-tools of common life should be intro- 
duced in due time. This ^^ sloyd '' w^ork, or skill producing 
work, should not completely take the place of the tasks 
belonging more emphatically to the grades below. On the 
contrary, these earlier tasks should be graded to suit, and 
continued as an educative agency. A year or two before 
the boy enters his teens he should begin to construct toys, 
such as spinning tops, weather-vanes, kites, etc. Presently 
decorative designing may be introduced in connection with 
cooperative and social undertakings, as in converting a 
room from one purpose to another. When motor control 
and the sense of responsibility have been sufficiently devel- 
oped useful articles like comb cases, picture frames, paper 
weights, etc., should be introduced and pushed into prom- 
inence. The educative purpose of these tasks evidently ex- 
tends to girls, but domestic tasks may be substituted for 
some of them when possible. The school garden, the school 
farm, and many-sided physical culture, are indispensable 
supplements of manual training. Without these additions 
manual training too often proves narrowly specialized and 
physically one sided. 

Advanced Manual Training. — (1) The high school 
curriculum, including, as it does, such studies as physics, 
physiology, and mathematics, calls for a course of manual 
training that supports such a curriculum from the side of 
apparatus, illustration, and experiment. The three or four 
hundred highly specialized bread-winning vocations into 
which modern life has been split, and from which shop 
apprenticeship has been largely removed, call loudly upon 



MANUAL TRAINING 287 

the high school to provide a course in manual training that 
consists of carefully selected norm or type work. The 
"' hand-minded " pupil, the backward pupil, the moral de- 
linquent, and other defectives can often complete the high 
school course so reinforced when otherwise it must be quite 
impossible, and a vast multitude of boys and girls will 
escape the necessity of the after school and the night school 
in preparing for the bread-winning life. (2) The high 
school course should accordingly include mechanical draw- 
ing, pattern making, decorative and useful designing, the 
construction of apparatus, toys, useful articles, carpentry, 
wood-turning, wood-carving, basketry, photography, garden- 
ing, farming, and other carefully selected tasks. Even this 
list is only a suggestion of the vastness of the fields from 
which the school tasks must be chosen by a well-trained 
teacher. Local requirements, time, equipment, and the 
like, must condition the selection of the tasks to be included. 

Material Equipment for Manual Training 

Material equipment for manual training includes a suit- 
able room, suitable working materials, and suitable tools. 

The Room. — (1) In cities and the larger towns grade 
rooms or district rooms planned for the special purpose may 
be reserved in central buildings. This serves the interests 
of economy and the interests of instruction. (2) In the 
villages and rural districts storage-room for tools and ma- 
terials may have to be found in the school room proper, and 
the room itself furnished with a working table may have to 
serve for all grades. Such a make-shift will of course 
reduce the possibilities of manual training, and is very much 
to be deplored. Where the financial resources permit it, a 
suitable shop or working place should evidently be secured. 

Materials. — Prepared paper, card-board, splints, sand, 
clay, colored darning cotton, wood of various kinds, etc., 
should be supplied by the school, and prepared for use by 
the teacher. 



288 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Tools. — (1) Among the tools required in the course for 
beginners are scissors, knives, needles, pencils, rulers, etc. 
(2) Intermediate pupils need the complete outfit of the 
modern carpenter, and there should be enough sets to supply 
at least one-third of the pupils of the school at one time. 
This supply makes it possible to divide the gTade into three 
sections, the sections to recite in their turn once or twice a 
week. (e3) The high school needs the photographer's out- 
fit, the wood-turning lathe, etc., as well as the carpenter's 
complete outfit. 

TEACHING MANUAL TRAINING 

As in other branches, the relation of the task to the 
learner must determine not only what shall be taught in 
order, but also the method to be used. 

Methods with Beginners 

Preparations for the coming recitation serve the best 
interests of study and instruction. 

The Teacher's Preparations. — (1) The teacher of be- 
ginners in manual training must study the personal needs 
of his pupils and select the task that serves the purpose. 
(2) He must prepare the materials to be used and see 
to it that the necessary tools are on hand and in good con- 
dition. (3) All the hygienic preparations must be made. 
(4) Interesting and useful information must be mastered 
for the purposes of class instruction. 

The Beginner's Preparations.: — (1) The beginner in 
manual training may be permitted to be a partner of the 
teacher in preparing the materials and tools for the coming 
recitations. (2) Between times correlated drawing and 
story language work may be required of older beginners. 

Recitations with Beginners. — Suppose it to be a lesson 
on paper folding. (1) The process should be illustrated 
by the teacher, and instructions should be coupled with the 
illustration. Respect for tools and materials should be 



MANUAL TRAINING 289 

inspired. (2) The pupil must try to do what he saw the 
teacher do. This imitation must be accompanied by sug- 
gestions and corrections, and the joy of success must be 
used as a stimulus to patient perseverance. (3) The same 
task must be assigned more than once, but the teacher must 
guard against absolute sameness of task. The " new " 
however little it may be should be introduced into this 
repetition work in order to prevent arrest of development. 

Intermediate Methods 

The special ends in view determine the adaptations to be 
made in every course. 

Preparations. — The wider scope of the course requires 
more extensive knowledge of the tasks involved and more 
detailed preparations. 

The Teacher's Preparations. — (1) The intermediate 
teacher, like the one before him, must prepare the materials 
to be used and see to the tools. (2) He must study the 
individuality of his pupils and select work to suit the special 
cases. (3) He must be prepared to explain materials 
and tools and ends in view. 

The Pupil's Preparations. — (1) The intermediate 
pupil should be taken into more complete partnership with 
the teacher in the preparation of materials and tools. (2) 
The correlated drawing and descriptive work should be 
somewhat more exacting, and may at times be prepared at 
home. Such work should however not be allowed to en- 
croach upon the school curriculum. 

The Intermediate Recitation. — (1) The intermediate 
recitation in manual training should begin with instruc- 
tions coupled with drawings and illustrations. Suppose it 
to be a wood-sawing lesson. The class should be told how 
to set the saw to the wood; how to draw rather than push 
the first stroke, and why; how to lengthen the stroke and 
why. Sample sawing may accompany the explanations. 
The selection of the wood to be used should be explained, 
19 



390 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

and wood-history studied. (2) Suggestions and corrections 
should be coupled with the sawing. Appeal to the sense of 
responsibility should be coupled with the joy of worthy 
achievement. (3) Practice in the kind of sawing already 
taught is of course necessary in the interest of memory and 
muscular control, but something new should be introduced 
as often as possible to keep the process from becoming 
slavishly automatic. 

High School Methods 

The correlation of high school manual training with the 
rest of the curriculum, together with the world-wide area 
from which the exercises should be chosen, multiply respon- 
sibilities amazingly. The intellectual, moral, and practical 
interests involved emphasize technic, accuracy, and inven- 
tion at the same time. 

Technic. — The graduate in manual training should have 
the language of his art at his tongue's end. The adaptation 
of tool to material add process should be based on scientific 
principles. He should know both the history of his art and 
the place to which it points for himself in the world. 

Accuracy. — Mathematical and artistic accuracy should 
of course be the aim in high school manual training. Such 
accuracy is a most effective adolescent discipline. It also 
serves as a training in fine muscular control. Accuracy 
coupled with the sense of responsibility is high training 
for livelihood. 

Invention. — The high school graduate who is not only 
thoroughly at home in all he undertakes, but who, by reason 
of the type or norm work to which he applied himself, can 
turn his hand to many things is well equipped for m^odern 
opportunity. The most daring specialist will also have to 
be the most resourceful thinker. 

High School Recitations. — (1) The high school recita- 
tion in manual training, like the lower ones, should begin 
with definite instructions, and these should be coupled with 



MANUAL TRAINING 291 

helpful drawings and sample work by the teacher. (2) 
The endeavors of the pupil should be coupled with sugges- 
tions and corrections, but to make him inventive he should 
be thrown more and more upon his own resources in achiev- 
ing ends in view. The worth of skill acquired and work 
accomplished should always be coupled with the sense of 
responsibility. (3) The practice work which must be so 
much emphasized in the interest of technic and accuracy 
must be carefully inspected by the teacher. Accounts of 
achievements must be kept and credits given. All attempts 
to be untrue to the task in hand or the ends in view should 
be thoroughly corrected. 

Value of Manual Training 

The " hand " is wonderfully near the " head " in edu- 
cation, and almost absolutely necessary to the life of man on 
earth. 

Asa Mental Exercise. — (1) The perception of qualities 
belonging to the raw materials and tools employed is so im- 
portant to mental and physical emancipation that manual 
training can hardly be over-estimated. (2) This result is 
greatly magnified by the constructive and creative imagina- 
tion which manual training promotes. (3) The nice judg- 
ment which the causal reasoning from means to ends makes 
necessary in manual training is the best realistic prepara- 
tion for the abstract flights required in the high school 
curriculum. (4) Manual training is a most effective com- 
plement of physical culture in the development of muscular 
control. ( 5 ) The use of tools on raw materials is an exact 
duplicate of the ordinary struggle to make a self-respecting, 
hopeful living. 

The Life Values of Manual Training. — (l)The com- 
plex industrial life which the boys and girls of to-day and 
the future must face is partly robbed of its terrors by the 
open doors of opportunity to which manual training points 
the way, and by the brain-filled skill to which it leads. (2) 



292 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

This brain-filled skill in the classmate who Avill have to work 
for a living will command the respect of the boy who may 
never have to work, and will thus help to lessen the strain 
between capital and labor. (3) The manual training school 
is turning the Red man's face away from savage warfare to 
the peaceful arts of his conquering white brother. (4) 
The ^egro, freed from slavery, has long continued to abhor 
its mark — the forced labors of his hand — and as a conse- 
quence he often lives a shiftless and immoral life. The 
experiments of Booker T. Washing-ton, the Moses of the 
IN'egro race, prove that manual training expanded into indus- 
trial skill produces a self-respecting and hopeful N^egi'o. 
(5) The mentally backward pupil is often able to complete 
his course in school when reinforced by manual training. 
It is a veritable God-send to the hand-minded boy. Com- 
bined with social and civic opportunity, as in the George 
*^ Junior Eepublic " of ISTew York State, manual training 
expanded into all sorts of industries is working veritable 
miracles. (6) Manual training makes the farmer work 
with a brain-filled hand. 

Training of Teachers. — (1) Both the complexity and 
the importance of the tasks of manual training emphasize 
the necessity of trained teachers. (2) In range such train- 
ing should cover a larger area than that which it may be 
necessary to cover in the class room. This will allow for 
" elbow room " and serve as " over tone " and " atmos- 
phere." Adequate training must include both a mastery of 
the subject and the mastery of its pedagogy. (3) The 
schools of to-day will soon furnish the back-bone of the 
required training, but the formal school and the technical 
school must supplement and perfect the work. The school 
teacher who perfects himself in manual training will not 
have to worry much about the getting of a place. 

Expense of Manual Training. — Statistics show that the 
actual cost of manual training lessons is much less than 
one might at first suppose. Counting the employment of 



MANUAL TRAINING 293 

efficient teacliers, tlie supply of materials and tools, as well 
as the room and furnishings, investigating committees have 
ascertained that the average cost of a boy's lesson is about 
seven cents and that of a girl about nine. Considering the 
services which manual training may be made to render to 
the rest of the school curriculum, the high gymnastic or 
culture value, and the immense advantages of skilled and 
brain-filled labor over unskilled and brain-lacking labor, as 
shown by statistics, the money spent for manual training is 
surely wisely invested. 

History of Manual Training 

A complete history of manual training would help to 
make this treatise quite too bulky for its purpose. A sug- 
gestive outline is deemed indispensable. 

Russia. — '^ The principle of the manual training school 
exists in the kindergarten, and for that principle we are 
indebted directly to Froebel, and indirectly to Pestalozzi, 
Comenius, Rousseau^ and Bacon. But it was reserved for 
Russia to solve the problem of tool-instruction by the labora- 
tory process, and make it the foundation of a great reform 
in education. The initiatory step was taken in 1868 by 
M. Victor Delia- Vos, director of the Imperial Technical 
School of Moscow." This Russian reformer, like his great 
German predecessor, hoped first of all to improve the neces- 
sary head-work of the school through correlated hand-work. 
For this reason the pupil is not allowed to produce " trade 
wholes " but only " parts." Nevertheless the secondary- 
hope that skill in making " parts " would in due time result 
in making useful and marketable wholes was hardly inferior 
to the fundamental hope. 

Sweden. — A little more than a quarter of a century ago 
the Swedes organized what has come to be called the 
" sloyd " system of manual training. The word sloyd 
means skilful, deft. The movement was designed to keep 
machinery from destroying peasant home industry during 



294 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

the long winter night. There is a Swedish training school 
in home-sloyd at JSTaas for teachers. Machinery is little 
used. Wholes rather than parts are constructed by the 
pupil, but the educational aim is made to dominate over the 
mercenary aim. Boys and girls alike are trained in wood- 
work with hand-tools, and the results are marvellous. 

Europe. — (1) France emphasizes the industrial aspects 
of manual training. (2) Through such men as Goetze at 
Leipsic, Germany has recently begun to bring both the 
courses to be pursued and the methods of instruction into 
perfect harmony with genetic psychology and modern indus- 
trial complexity. (3) England is waking up into fierce 
industrial competition with France and Germany. Prac- 
tically all Europe has adopted manual training in some 
form or other. 

America. — Greatly pleased with the collection of hand- 
tools and samples of shop-work which he saw in Philadelphia 
in 1876, Dr. John D. Eunkle, President of the Massachu- 
setts Institute of Technology, recommended the system for 
his own institution^ and thus caused the adoption of the 
Eussian reform in America. Dr. C. M. Woodward founded 
the second manual training school as a department of 
Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. The first class was 
graduated in 1883. Since then university has vied with 
university, city with city, and state with state, in impulsive 
eagerness to adopt the system. " More than two-thirds of 
the cities of the United States having a population of 
40,000 and over have adopted manual training in some 
grade or other of their public schools. The smaller towns 
and rural districts follow rather far in the rear.'' 

Defects. — The impulsive eagerness with which manual 
training has been adopted has permitted defects in course 
and method to become parts of otherwise praiseworthy re- 
forms. (1) The framing of the courses has not been able 
to keep pace with the growing complexity of modern indus- 
trial development. The courses will have to continue in a 



MANUAL TRAINING 295 

state of flux for years. (2) The fascination with which 
efficient teaching envelops manual training has often been 
permitted to divorce the student from the rest of his cur- 
riculum. The correlation of the course with the other 
studies must be very much improved. (3) The adoption 
of educationally inferior exercises has too often given sore 
offence to the genetic needs of the student. Scientific adap- 
tation will be necessary. 

Other Lands. — Manual training has found its way to 
distant parts of the Orient and the islands of the ocean 
world. (1) The Christian missionary carries it to his 
converts to help them become self-supporting in the midst 
of hostile populations. (2) World-wide commerce carries 
it and the industries to which it leads wherever ships and 
caravans can go. The prospects are that all the world will 
presently be compelled to bless the name of Della-Vos with 
that of Froebel. The Carpenter of Nazareth is really the 
Master at whose feet these great reformers learned the les- 
sons they have brought. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. Educational Review, Nov., 1895. 

2. Intellectual Value of Tool Work. Harris, N. E. A. Report, 1889. 

3. Manual Training in the Grades. Harvey, N. E. A. Report, 1905. 

4. N. E. A. Reports, 1903, 1904, 1905, 1906. 

5. Manual Training and Good Citizenship. " The Elementary 
School Teacher," Oct., 1905. 



CHAPTER XII 

AGRICULTURE 

The Nature of Agriculture 

As a process agriculture is the cultivation of the soil 
with the purpose of compelling it to bear the plants we 
want, and through these as means the animals we want. 
(1) The facts of agriculture, like the facts of grammar 
and arithmetic, can be ascertained by observation. By 
comparison we learn the principles to which the cultivation 
of the soil must conform when we aim at best results. And 
so far agriculture is a science. As a science agriculture 
includes the chemistry of soils, the physiology and hygiene 
of plants and animals, together with the physics and the 
mathematics of the means employed in the cultivation of 
soils and products. (2) So far as agriculture is the physi- 
cal application of principles it is an art. This aspect of 
agriculture has been termed " scientific farming," " scien- 
tific gardening," etc. (3) In its most essential features 
agriculture serves the interests of human life and happiness. 

Agriculture Defined. — As just explained. Agriculture 
is the cultivation of the soil and its products for the good 
of man. 

Agriculture, as we shall see, can be made a most valuable 
part of our school work. 

The Subject of Agriculture 

The subject-matter of agriculture, in accordance with the 
definition of its nature and its purpose, may be conveniently 
treated under plant production, animal production, farm 
mechanics, and farm economics. 

Plant Production. — Whether we shall be able to com- 
pel the soil to bear the clover, wheat, or peach we want will 
296 



AGRICULTURE 297 

depend first of all upon the soil, seed, or plant tliat we 
choose. Oftentimes the soil in question must be fertilized 
to suit it to the plant to be produced, to the geographical 
relief of the field, and even to climatic averages. The 
layering of plants, the grafting of trees, etc., may be neces- 
sary. In many cases weeds and pests must be destroyed. 
Plants like corn or potatoes must be fed with adjacent soil. 
Irrigation, watering, etc., may become important. 

Animal Production. — Fruits, vegetables, grains, and 
the like are good for man directly. Other plants are culti- 
vated directly for the sake of animals and thus for man indi- 
rectly. This is largely true, for example, of the grasses, 
corn, etc. Among the animals to whose profitable produc- 
tion agriculture is physiologically adapted are poultry, 
pigs, sheep, cows, horses, etc. Bees should also be included 
in the list. (1) The problems of scientific, and thus profi- 
table poultry raising, are many. The venture must begin 
with the selection of a locality physiologically suited to the 
purpose, and the selection of superior stock. The food must 
be hygienic both in quality and quantity. Much will de- 
pend on sanitary housing. Pests and diseases must be 
combated scientifically. The hatching process must be 
scientifically supervised. (2) The farmer who hopes to 
make " pigs pay " must select superior stock to begin with. 
Scientific accuracy of diet and a sanitary sty are both of 
great importance. The diseases to which pigs are subject 
must be studied and combated. (3) Cows can be made a 
very profitable asset of agriculture. The stock for the ven- 
ture should, of course, be the best in the market. Sani- 
tary stabling is of great importance. Accurate diet, in- 
cluding wholesome pasture, is an absolute necessity. The 
utmost care should be exercised to guard the herd against 
the dangerous diseases to which cattle are subject. (4) 
The farmer who happens to own pasture land which he can- 
not convert into profitable arable fields, can make sheep- 
raising profitable. Superior stock, a sanitary fold, freedom 



298 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

from pests, etc., are the great necessities. (5) On tlie big 
farm horse-breeding can be made profitable. The venture 
must, of course, begin with superior stock selected for a 
special purpose. Hygienic diet and sanitary stabling are 
of great importance. Exercise is essential. Medicine and 
surgery may become important. Mistakes in the " breaking 
in " process may be very serious. Expert help is profitable. 
Hygienic diet and sanitary stabling for the horse always 
pay. Force, overwork, cruelty, etc., never pay. (6) 
The aviary may be made to pay the farmer. His clover 
and other crops will furnish all the food. The hive must 
of course be suitably located and properly superintended. 

Farm Mechanics. — Plant production and animal produc- 
tion require the employment of mechanical means. Among 
these means are spades and hoes, rakes and forks, harrows 
and plows, planters and cultivators, mowers and reapers, 
hoists and threshers, cutters and windmills, chums and 
scales, harness and wagons. The uses to which these means 
are to be put, together with the proper care and repair 
of the same, must be learned most thoroughly. It serves the 
purposes of profitable agriculture to know the mechanics 
of water supply, sanitation, irrigation, plumbing, steam- 
fitting, horse-shoeing, road-building, saw-milling, etc. 

Farm Economics. — (1) The production of certain plants 
or crops may not pay. The necessary tools and machinery, 
together with the fertilizers, pest-destroyers, etc., may make 
the production in question unprofitable. " Truck farming " 
may pay the " small farmer," or the farmer near the town, 
better than the ordinary farm crops. The farmer who 
hopes to succeed financially must know how to determine 
these things by arithmetic. He must learn by experiment 
and from books how to " stop leaks " and how to get im- 
proved results. Perhaps the soil or climate is unsuitable 
by nature. Perhaps there are fertilizers to be found that 
will remedy the defects. Perhaps the culture-processes are 
unscientific. (2) Animal production must of course be 



AGRICULTURE 299 

subjected to tlie same sort of tests. The production of 
poultry, bees, cattle, horses, sheep, etc., may cost more than 
the products will be worth in the market. The " flora " and 
climate of the locality may be better suited to sheep raising 
than cattle raising. The market-demand for poultry may 
be greater than the demand for pork, cheese, etc. Perhaps 
the stock, food, feeding, housing, etc., may be wrong. Per- 
haps the milk, butter, eggs, meat, lard, honey, cheese, wool, 
etc., could be more temptingly and more hygienically pre- 
pared for the market. Leaks in service, supervision, etc., 
may have to be stopped. (3) The necessity and value of 
machinery and implements must be determined. It may not 
pay the small farmer to o^vn a self-binder for his harvest, 
but a " cutter " for his fodder may be just the thing. 
It will pay the large farmer — especially where hands are 
scarce and labor high — to own the gasoline engine, the 
corn-planter, etc., better than to do without these con- 
veniences. In many localities training in the mechanics of 
carpentry, horse-shoeing, shoe-making, water-supply, irri- 
gation, road-building, plumbing, etc., are a veritable God- 
send to the farmer. A knowledge of domestic science, in- 
cluding cooking, baking, laundry work, etc., in the farmer's 
home will not only pay in dollars and cents but in happiness. 

The Psychology of Agriculture 

The scientific study of agriculture is particularly rich 
in necessary mental action. This is a consequence of the 
scope of agriculture and the physical and vital forces com- 
ing into view within this scope, as just set forth in the 
explanation of the subject. 

Observation. — (1) Plant production and animal pro- 
duction take " time." The observation of both must there- 
fore always consist of many observations so timed as to 
show cause and effect in correct relations. The facts of 
growth, arrest of growth, rapid growth, abnormal growth, 
etc., may depend on native soil, on fertilizers, weather, food, 



300 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

pests, etc. These things must of course be taken into 
consideration in the ascertainment of the real facts. The 
mental action thus involved is rich in exact perceptions, 
faithful memory, cautious judgment, vigorous attention, 
etc. Besides all this the obvious relation of agriculture to 
the life we live crowds the necessary observations with in- 
tensest interests. (2) The mental action to which ordinary 
agricultural observation gives rise is intensified and im- 
proved by the purposeful introduction of modifications into 
plant production and animal production. The agricultural 
" laboratory " produces as rich and complex a correlation 
of observing faculties as experimental biology, to which 
of course it is really " next-door." 

Induction. — As explained, a multitude of result-modify- 
ing agencies may enter into plant and animal productions. 
The danger of jumping at conclusions in agricultural in- 
duction is therefore very great. False conclusions in agri- 
cultural induction have serious practical consequences. The 
prevention of such results through '' laboratory revision '^ 
of conclusions is therefore simply imperative, but, as we 
shall see, it makes the scientific study of agriculture a most 
powerful instrument of education in the hands of a trained 
teacher. 

Deduction. — Agricultural deduction must of course fol- 
low induction. The principles of chemistry, physiology, 
hygiene, mechanics, economics, etc., must be applied. In 
that event traditional practices in agriculture will give way 
at last to resourceful and experimental agriculture. The 
mental action of which such deduction must consist re- 
quires intelligence of a high order, but should not be impos- 
sible for those who put forth honest effort. 

TEACHING AGRICULTURE 

The nature of the mental action for which the subject- 
matter of agriculture calls determines at the same time both 
the courses and the methods of instruction. • 



AGRICULTURE 301 

Courses of Agriculture 

There should be nothing haphazard in the courses which 
the modem school attempts. (1) The stuff to be included 
in a course of instruction should be made to correspond cor- 
rectly with the mental readiness of the learner. The readi- 
ness in question should be one of ripeness both in interest 
and in ability. (2) Apperception should determine the 
sequence of the lessons in the course. (3) Local limita- 
tions and local destination, including illustrative riches or 
poverty and laboratory facilities or the lack of these, should 
be allowed to modify the genetic construction of the course 
and also the daily undertakings. 

Course for Beginners. — In the years just before the 
child begins to go to school he acquires much valuable 
knowledge through the spontaneous nature-study of birds, 
insects, flowers, trees, etc., as he finds these in his immediate 
environment. To be true to genetic dictates, the course of 
agriculture for beginners should therefore be, up to the age 
of about twelve, a somewhat apperceptive and unbroken 
continuation of this spontaneous nature-study. (1) For 
the first few years, both the boys and the girls should observe 
" wild and cultivated plants, trees, insects, and animals right 
around their home, on the way to school, and round about 
the school." They should also " plant and grow some of the 
common hardy vegetables, such as radishes, lettuce, beets, 
and carrots; and one or two quick-growing flowers, such 
as dwarf -nasturtiums." (2) The subgrammar grades 
should " observe weather, soils, wild and cultivated plants, 
trees, insects, and animals " as found in the school district 
and the township. They should '^ compare the habits of 
plants and animals in order to become familiar with their 
different modes of living, their struggles for existence, and 
their uses to man." They should also " plant and grow 
typical economic plants of the region, giving some attention 
to different varieties, and to the relation of crops to different 



303 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

conditions of soil, weather, treatment, etc." Eirst out- 
lined in 1906 by Professor B. M. Davis, this course is not 
only genetically suitable bnt educationally very necessary. 
Grammar School Course in Agriculture. — The mental 
development of the grammar grades calls for a wider course 
of observations supplemented by comparisons and applica- 
tions that will serve both the purposes of education and 
the ordinary needs of the farm or garden. (1) The pupils 
of the grammar grades should record the weather-history of 
a reasonable number of plant-productions to discover 
weather-effects. They should compare the crops of the 
farms in the school districts to ascertain the effects of soils 
and fertilizers, difference of seed-times and crop-rotations, 
difference in modes of sowing, planting, cultivation, etc. 
Their attention should be called to the poultry, cattle, horses, 
etc., on the farnis of the school district, in connection with 
the kind of food, feeding, housing, sanitation, etc., to which 
the animals in question have been treated. (2) During the 
last two years of the grammar school the better farms of 
neighboring districts should be visited to study farai- 
animals, irrigation and drainage systems, home water supply 
and sewage systems, buildings and fences, orchards and 
spraying machinery, rotations and other systems of crop- 
ping. " The pupils should be taken to local dairies to 
study dairy animals and machinery; to creameries, cheese 
factories, and canneries to study methods of preparing prod- 
ucts for consumption and shipment; to cold-storage plants 
to study the preservation of foodstuffs ; to the butcher shop 
to study meat cutting ; to the green grocer to study methods 
of preparing fruit and farm products for market; and to 
the implement dealer to compare types of farm machinery." 
(3) The grammar school course in agTiculture should in- 
clude a good deal of school garden and home garden work. 
The pupils should " plant and gi'ow different varieties of 
crops — e.g., wheat, barley, sugar, beets, potatoes. Exer- 
cises in pruning, grafting, making cuttings, etc., should 
be introduced. The pupils should be encouraged to grow 



AGRICULTURE 303 

crops, poultry and farm animals at home. They should be 
taught how to keep account of labor, fertilizers, feed, gross 
and net returns. They should experiment on different 
methods of planting, cultivating, harvesting, and preparing 
for market." (4) These experiments should be accom- 
panied by laboratory experiments in the chemistry of soils, 
plant-life, sprays, etc. 

High School Course in Agriculture. — The greater ma- 
turity of the high school pupil, coupled with the vast oppor- 
tunities for livelihood and prosperity which scientific 
agriculture offers to the youths of our land, calls for a very 
complete course in agriculture. The township high school 
that does not help by such a course to make rural life attrac- 
tive, dignified, and profitable misses the modern mark by 
a great deal. The same lessons reverently taught in town 
and city high schools will relieve the overcrowded shop 
and factory, and make the overcrowded tenement a thing 
of the past. (1) The course should follow the lines 
already suggested for the grammar school, but it should be 
widened and deepened. (2) It should include a thorough 
course in agricultural chemistry, botany, zoology, mechan- 
ics, economics, etc., together with domestic chemistry, in- 
cluding cooking, etc. The course should never ignore local 
conditions and requirements. 

Methods of Teaching Agriculture 

The subject to be studied, together with the mental action 
to Avhich the subject in question should give rise, determines 
the methods of instruction in agriculture as in other 
branches. 

Methods with Beginners. — ^As in other studies, so in 
agriculture, preparations must be made for recitations and 
the recitations must be so conducted as to cause the mental 
action most desired. 

Preparations. — (1) The teacher of beginners in agri- 
culture should be very full of the subject which he hopes 
to bring to the attention of the class. He must prepare 



304 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

himself to direct the school garden exercises which he hopes 
to make a part of the E'ature observations. (2) The chil- 
dren themselves should be encouraged to make observations 
along the particular lines of plant life or animal life to 
be taken up in the coming recitation. 

Recitatiok^s for Beginners. — (1) The observation les- 
sons, as explained under " ^N'ature Study," should be rather 
informal, coming now in connection with one branch of 
study and now in connection with another, as geography, 
language, arithmetic, etc. (2) For the school-garden les- 
sons, which may come several times a week for ten or fifteen 
minutes at a time, each pupil should have a school garden 
of his own. The plot need not be more than 8 by 12 feet. 
Here he should plant, cultivate, observe, etc., partly as 
directed by the teacher, partly as he chooses. The pupil 
should be made to understand that he will be allowed to 
dispose of his ripened garden products very much as he 
may choose. He may market his beets, present his flowers 
to his friends, etc. This permission will serve as a power- 
ful stimulus to a faithful and delightful gardening. (3) 
The school should also have a " demonstration plat " on 
which illustrative work can be done by the teacher. The 
work must of course be coupled with the best possible ex- 
planations. The U. S. Bureau of Agriculture, Washing- 
ton, D. C, offers to furnish school-packages of seeds for 
school-garden experiments. 

Grammar School Methods in Agriculture. — The great 
variety of subjects to be undertaken, together with the mul- 
titude of details that connect themselves with almost any 
subject of agriculture, make painstaking preparations for 
the recitation very necessary. 

Preparations. — (1) The grammar school study of agri- 
culture should be more or less systematic. It may be made 
so most conveniently by the use of an up-to-date text-book. 
In order to give life and meaning to this book-course it 
must be coupled with local observations, district visits, 
school gardens, laboratory, and reference books. The 



AGRICULTURE 305 

teacher must stndy the text to be recited, and prepare him- 
self to direct the local observations, district visits, garden- 
ing, etc. (2) The pupil must prepare the text-book lesson 
as he would any other lesson. He must make local obser- 
vations as directed, prepare himself as required for district 
visits, garden work, and experiments, and consult reference 
books, farm bulletins, farm journals, etc. 

Grammar School Recitations in Agriculture. — (1) 
The text-book recitation should have the usual objects of a 
recitation in view; it should of course consist partly of 
board-work and partly of oral work. Local maps, diagrams, 
and drawing, will often be necessary. (2) A part of the 
dinner hour or another convenient time should be selected 
for local observation lessons. On these occasions the 
teacher should conduct the class to the particular locality to 
be visited, ask the owner of the place for such privileges 
as may be desired, and proceed to direct the study of the 
things in question. The visits should be pleasant, but 
orderly, and the time consumed should not be too much, 
nor should the visits come too often. (3) The district 
visits, requiring longer time and special preparations, should 
probably be deferred to free Saturdays, holidays, etc. 
Visits for which the pupils are required to pay should 
be undertaken only by the consent of those who must pay. 
The pupils should not be permitted to take dangerous risks. 
(4) A school garden 10 by 20 feet should be assigned 
to each pupil. The garden undertakings should cover a 
wide range and require both inductive search after cause 
and effect, and deductive judgment in the use of text-book 
theories. The pupil should be allowed to market his prod- 
ucts, exhibit at clean Agricultural Eairs for prizes, etc. 
Home gardens should be encouraged. Clubs should be 
formed for discussion of agricultural questions. (5) The 
teacher should make the pupils his assistants in the labora- 
tory experiments. This will make them more observant, 
and serve at the same time as a needed stimulus to study. 
20 



306 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Every experiment should help to illumine the text-book 
course, and drive the class to cyclopaedias, bulletins, etc. 
Full directions for laboratory experiments should accom- 
pany the chapter of the book to which the experiments be- 
long. Several of the Agricultural Colleges have published 
bulletins containing full directions for a large number of 
valuable experiments. The teacher may become the posses- 
sor of such helps by writing to Purdue University, Lafay- 
ette, Indiana; the Ohio State Agricultural College; the 
U. S. Office of Experiment Stations, Washington, D. C, 
etc. (6) The grammar school class in agriculture should 
be required to acquaint themselves with the best literature 
on the subject, and those who hope to make farming their 
occupation should be encouraged to acquire a library of 
agriculture. 

High School Methods in Agriculture. — (1) High school 
purposes should shape both the preparations for the reci- 
tation, and the recitation itself. (2) The local obser- 
vations, the district visits, the garden experiments, the 
laboratory, the mechanics, etc., of the course should there- 
fore be coupled with strictly scientific and technical instruc- 
tion. " As far as the training of the pupils in mathe- 
matics will permit, the results obtained in the laboratory 
exercises should be translated to field conditions, and the 
importance of the principles involved should be brought 
out by questions concerning their application to the practical 
operations of farming." 

Value of 5chool Agriculture 

The vahTe of a thorough course in school agriculture can 
hardly be overestimated. 

School Values. — (1) As pointed out in the psychology 
of scientific agriculture, the study of agriculture may be 
so pursued as to require the most exact perceptions and con- 
clusions, coupled with faithful memory, vigorous attention, 
intense interest, etc. (2) The study of agriculture may be 
so coupled with language, arithmetic, geography, physics, 



AGRICULTURE 307 

etc., as to furnish these with illustrative material of very 
high educational value. 

Life. — (1) Agriculture in the rural school will serve 
as a stimulus to scientific farming. The scientific farmer 
will succeed hetter in plant production, animal production, 
farm mechanics, and farm economics. His products will 
bring him hetter prices. He will therefore have more 
money for education, comfort, travel, etc. This kind of a 
farmer will not be ashamed of his vocation, his home will 
not be dull and unattractive, and the city cannot lure him 
and his loved ones from his paradise. (2) Agriculture in 
the city school will lead many young people to take up life 
in the country, where they may win a home far away from 
the din and the strife. With the " letter-box " near his 
door, the telephone in his house, and the trolley car at his 
beck, the scientific farmer is a king, his wife a queen, and 
his children are his happy heirs. (3) The desertion of 
the country for the town will cease only when the city school 
conspires with the country school to teach boys and girls 
the greatness of the possibilities of coimtry life. (4) The 
agricultural and industrial schools of the South will in time 
emancipate the l^egro from a civic and moral slavery almost 
worse than his first estate. The far-off West will blossom 
like a rose when the scientific farmer goes there to live. 

The Training of Teachers. — (1) The value of agricul- 
tural education makes trained teachers very necessary. (2) 
The agricultural colleges, equipped as they are for plant 
production, animal production, agricultural laboratories, 
agricultural experts, etc., are best prepared to give that 
training in agriculture which teachers of agriculture in 
E'ormal schools may need. And, until the formal schools 
themselves undertake to prepare their graduates to teach 
agriculture in the common schools, the agricultural colleges 
should, for State reasons, offer a course in the pedagogy 
of agriculture. (3) For State reasons, as well as educa- 
tional and vocational reasons, the Normal schools should 



308 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

teach, agriculture. And they can. The delightful burden 
should fall in part on the teacher of biology, in part on the 
teachers of physics, mathematics, and geography, and in 
part on the teacher of methods. (4) The time is probably 
not far distant when the teacher applying for a position 
must give the same evidence of fitness in agriculture as the 
lav^ requires in geography and history. 

The Financial Problem. — (1) Agriculture in tbe pub- 
lic schools requires trained teachers, school gardens, an ex- 
periment laboratory, books, etc. The State appropriations 
to the schools may therefore have to be slightly increased. 
(2) The following estimate is quoted from Crospy's " Prog- 
ress in Agricultural Education, 1906." " The materials to 
be used in laboratory work may be expensive or they may 
be had for a few dollars. Two dozen empty tomato cans, 
three or four lard pails, a few baking-powder cans and 
covers, a lot of empty bottles, a few small wooden boxes, 
a collection of typical soils (clay, sand, loam, and muck or 
peat), and a few seeds of garden and farm crops will enable 
the teacher and pupils to perform a variety of experiments, 
illustrating important principles upon which the science and 
practice of agriculture are based, and will not cost a cent. 
If to this material the school board or the pupils will 
add by purchase at prices approximately as given, an 
8-ounce glass graduate (10 cents), 4 dairy thermometers 
(60 cents), 6 student lamp chimneys (90 cents), 12 5-inch 
test tubes, 100 5-inch filter papers (15 cents), a pint glass 
funnel (10 cents), a 4-bottle Babcock milk tester with test 
bottles, pipette, acid measure and acid ($5), an alcohol 
lamp (25 cents), a kitchen scale with dial which will 
weigh from 1 ounce to 24 pounds (90 cents), 12 ordinary 
glass tumblers (30 to 50 cents), a small quantity of litmus 
paper, and a few ordinary plates, iron spoons, pie tins, etc., 
the school will be provided with an excellent equipment for 
laboratory exercises, and all at a cost less than $10." 

" With this material in the bands of the pupils and a 



AGRICULTURE 309 

teacher willing to experiment and learn with the pupils 
the ordinary rural school-room becomes a laboratory in 
which it is possible to determine the comparative tempera- 
ture, weight, acidity, porosity, capillarity, and fertility of 
different soils ; to test their water-holding capacity and the 
readiness with which they may be drained, and to, show the 
effects of cultivation, mulching, and puddling on the mois- 
ture content and physical condition of different soils." 

Considering the educational and vocational values of 
school agriculture, the expense involved should not be a 
serious obstacle. 

The History of School Agriculture 

In civilization as a process of development the pastoral 
stage is followed by the agricultural stage. In the agricul- 
tural stage of civilization the home becomes a fixed locality 
and the other institutions of civilization take on organic 
form. As long as the population of a country is able to 
supply itself with foodstuffs without embarrassment the 
cultivation of the soil is left to those who find it difficult 
to succeed in other vocations. When the sum total of the 
foodstuffs imported by any country begins to be greater 
than that of its exports, waste processes must be stopped and 
improved farming inaugurated. It is then that the govern- 
ment of the country in question finds it prudent to estab- 
lish Agricultural Bureaus, Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tions, Agricultural Colleges, etc. 

School Agriculture. — Europe reached this crisis first. 
As a result agriculture has become an integral part of 
the popular school curriculum of practically all European 
states. Improved agriculture has become necessary in all 
civilized countries. The government of the United States, 
together with many states of the Union, have taken up the 
matter very much in earnest. 

Educational Agriculture. — Within the last ten years 
educators began to realize that agriculture should become 



310 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

an integral part of the school curriculum for educational as 
well as vocational reasons. At this writing a great number 
of the higher institutions of learning, together with the 
State Colleges, Technological Schools, ^Normal Schools, etc., 
offer courses in agriculture. In a number of states school 
agriculture has become mandatory in the grades. In other 
states Farmers' Institutes, Agricultural Clubs, etc., are 
bringing the matter to public attention. In 1906 the de- 
partment of superintendence of the i^ational Educational 
Association adopted resolutions urging the ^N'omial Schools 
to include agriculture in tlieir course, and requesting Con- 
gress to make appropriations to the States for the purpose. 
State Superintendents, County superintendents, and educa- 
tors of all sorts are urging the introduction of agriculture 
into city schools as well as country schools, and that such 
courses should be offered not only to the boys but the girls. 
Through all these agitations, and especially because of the 
high values which actual experiment has demonstrated, 
agriculture will no doubt soon become as much a part of 
the public school curriculum as the branches now included. 
The following valuable publications of the United States 
Bureau of Education are recommended to teachers : 

1. Teaching Agriculture in the Schools of France and Belgium. 

2. Instruction in Agriculture in Prussia and France. 

3. Advancement and Improvement of Agriculture in Europe. 

4. Consular Reports on Education. 

5. The Curriculum of the Land-Grant Colleges. 

6. General Laws Relating to Agricultural and Mechanical Land- 
Grant Colleges. 

7. The Study of Agriculture and Metallurgy. 

8. Agriculture and Mechanical Colleges. 

9. Agricultural Education Including Nature Study and School 
Gardens. 

10. On the Training of Persons to Teach Agriculture in the 
Public Schools. 

The Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, 1907, contains 
a valuable article by Dick J. Crosby, entitled, " Training Courses 
for Teachers of Agriculture." 



CHAPTER XIII 
PHYSIOLOGY 

Nature 

As explained, the subject matter of a study determines 
the mental action, and therefore the method of teaching. 

The Subject of Physiology. — As the science of the 
functions of the organs of the body, physiology includes 
anatomy and hygiene. In this larger sense the study of the 
body is one of the largest and most complicated subjects 
ever undertaken in the sciences. Among the things that 
astonish and well-nigh paralyze the exact student of physi- 
ology are, (1) the almost infinite number of organs, (2) 
the minuteness of many, (3) the complexity of functional 
relations, (4) the countless multitude of hygienic causes, 
laws, and conditions. 

Selection of Subject Matter. — Considering the large- 
ness and complexity of the subject, it becomes evident that 
in the study of physiology, when pressed for time or con- 
trolled by special purposes, we must select the more sig- 
nificant in preference to the less significant. 

The Significance of Subjects. — (1) Some subjects 
in the study of physiology are more significant than others 
to boys and girls at school just because they are at school, 
as food, rest, exercise, posture, the care of the eye, the ear, 
etc., on account of the bearing of these things on study, 
growth, happiness, etc. (2) Some subjects are more 
significant than others because of their bearing on the future 
welfare of the students, as the right things to do in case 
of emergencies like bleeding, burning, poisoning, and drown- 
ing, or the final effects of apparently harmless things like 
cigarettes, exposure to germs, etc. (3) The teacher's re- 
sources in the task of causing the pupil to study what he 

311 



313 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

hopes to assign must of course also be taken into considera- 
tion. It is important, for example, that the subjects taken 
up with younger pupils should be interesting in them- 
selves, and that the importance of subjects taken up with 
older pupils can be made sufficiently evident to them. 

The Shortness of Time. — Although the simpler, more 
interesting and useful subjects should be taken up even 
before the child comes to school, as opportunity may offer, 
the time for the proper study of the many things that are 
really significant is very short. The great majority of 
boys and girls, coming, as they do, from the humbler walks 
of life, do not remain in school longer than the law requires, 
approximately for most states at the age of sixteen. Wliat 
such boys and girls do not know in physiology when they 
leave school will usually have to be acquired, if acquired 
at all, by hard experience, and the consequences oftentimes 
extend to those for whom they become responsible. These 
considerations make thorough sifting in the selection of 
the really significant subjects of physiology startlingly 
imperative. 

Courses in Physiology. — The following courses for the 
public schools and the teachers are based on the principles 
set forth above. 

Public Schools. — Among the things which boys and 
girls should know in physiology when they leave school at 
the age of sixteen or eighteen years are, (1) the name and 
location of the bones and important muscles, together with 
their significant character, function, and hygiene; (2) the 
name and location of the vital organs, such as the heart, 
lungs, and alimentary canal, together with their significant 
character, functions, and hygiene, special attention to be 
given to mastication, deglutition, assimilation, elimination, 
respiration, and circulation; (3) the name and location of 
the significant parts in the lymphatic system, together with 
the significant character, function, and hygiene of this 
system ; -(4:) the significant character, function, and hygiene 



PHYSIOLOGY 313 

of the skin, nails, hair, and teeth, together with the neces- 
sary descriptive language; (5) the significant character, 
functions, and hygiene of the special senses, together with 
the necessary descriptive language; (6) the significant 
character, function, and hygiene of the mouth and throat, 
including the tongue, pharynx, and larynx, together with 
the necessary explanatory language; (7) what constitutes 
proper clothing, food, drink, air, cleanliness, exercise, rest, 
and sleep; (8) why, on the whole and in the long run, the 
use of opium, tobacco, cigarettes, and intoxicating drinks 
is so serious ; (9) what to do in cases of such emergencies as 
poisoning, bleeding, burning, drowning, and exposure to 
contagious diseases; (10) why certain habits of dress, post- 
ure, etc., are so serious to life, growth, health, strength, and 
beauty; (11) etc. Though not to be put into the hands of 
the pupil too soon, an up-to-date text-book will ser\^e the 
teacher as a guide. 

Teachers. — A^Hiile all teachers should know all the 
physiology they can possibly master in the interests of a 
most responsible profession, (1) the physiology teacher 
should know the subject extensively and exactly, lest he may 
do more harm than good, first by false instruction, then by 
stress on things less significant, and thus finally by bringing 
the subject into ill repute. (2) There is probably no sub- 
ject in the teaching of which safe reasoning depends so 
much on large experience and wide observation coupled 
with special training. (3) Nor is it enough that the physi- 
ology teacher knows his subject. The sum total of his effi- 
ciency will depend largely upon his mastery of the special 
pedagogy of the subject, as we shall soon see. 

TEACHING PHYSIOLOGY 

The psychological and economic adaptations required by 
the subject-matter of physiology are as follows: 

Psychological Adaptations. — Each one of the formal 
steps of physiology has its own special difficulties. 



314 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Observatioi^. — As in all good teaching, the ascertain- 
ment of physiological facts must be based on illustrations. 
Statistics, however, tend to show that in teaching young 
children the significant facts about bones, nerves, eyes, 
hearts, etc., we should not be too realistic in illustrations, as 
when we try to show the brittleness of bone by putting it 
into fire or its animal matter by subjecting it to acids and 
then tying it into a knot, or when we dissect the eyes and 
heart of a butchered ox to illustrate the parts of the corre- 
sponding human organs, because, before the child can appre- 
ciate the sacredness of life, he is tempted to try similar 
experiments on his little friends or on pets, thus not only 
doing harm in the first instances but developing a somewhat 
natural tendency in many children into the habit of down- 
right heartlessness. Pictorial representations coupled with 
vivid description, or manikins, if they can be had, coupled 
with explanations, should therefore be substituted for realis- 
tic illustrations until, say in the grammar grades, when 
respect for the sacredness of life shall have been somewhat 
developed. In the high school those facts which cannot 
be based on authentic outside observations should be taught 
through realistic experiments. 

iNDUCTioisr. — In physiology the relation of cause and 
effect is often very remote, as in the cigarette habit, arterial 
degeneration through habitual strain of the heart, etc. Then 
again, it is very difficult to ascertain a genus or a law 
unerringly in physiology because the combination of condi- 
tions under which a cause, as smoking, indiscretions in diet, 
jumping rope, or running up stairs, vary so much in differ- 
ent persons. The inductive conclusions of physiology 
should therefore be supported by numerous examples of the 
rule to be proved, and the readiness to revise conclusions on 
securing fuller evidence should be highly cultivated, as when 
we find that it is dangerous after all to come in contact with 
the poison ivy or contagious disease. 



PHYSIOLOGY 315 

Deduction. — There is in physiology the personal temp- 
tation of classifying ourselves or others for whom we may 
be responsible in a genus or under a law to which by reason 
of the personal combination of differences the individual 
does not belong, as when we subject all persons to the same 
diet, exercise, sleeping hours, etc. The danger of erring 
in such deductions should be fully explained, and the ten- 
dency if present should be effectively curbed by confutation, 
persuasive if possible, forcible if necessary. 

Economic Adaptations. — The preparations for the reci- 
tation in physiology, and the course which the recitation 
itself should take, are subject to the usual requirements. 

Peeparations. — (1) \\niile the lessons, whether they 
are to be recited daily or less frequently, as the case may 
permit, should be assigned in strict accordance with the 
present, future, and special needs of the pupil, the thread of 
the lessons should of course be as apperceptive as possible. 
It goes almost without saying that the teacher should know 
the lesson in all its connections. Charts, books, manikins, 
cyclopaedias, etc., should be used in connection with supplies 
of illustrative materials in these preparations. (2) While 
almost no book preparation should be required of the 
younger pupils, advanced pupils should be required to make 
preparations similar to those of the teacher. As in other 
studies, the pupil's preparations not only employ the pupil 
profitably between recitations but they make the recitation 
itself a larger opportunity. 

Course of the Eecitation. — (1) Except as supple- 
mentary reading, books have no place in a physiology reci- 
tation. Their use in class spoils the pupil and the teacher 
by encouraging dependence. (2) The subject requires the 
same kind of board work and oral work combined with 
illustrative instruction on the part of the teacher and 
explanatory work on the part of the pupils as most other 
studies. 



316 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Value of Physiology 

Both the knowledge and the culture acquired in the study 
of physiology serve the purposes of education. 

The Knowledge Value. — (1) He who knows the signifi- 
cant character, functions, and hygiene of the significant 
organs of his body, will often, perhaps habitually and 
freely, choose to sacrifice possible present good for future 
and higher good, and thus add immensely to physical health, 
strength, skill, and beauty. (2) With these desirable pos- 
sessions, as explained, come greater possibilities for piety, 
goodness, service, and happiness. 

Value of the Process. — (1) Properly taught the physi- 
ology student finds, as already explained, that in the realm 
of his body and the realm of mental dependence on the 
body, effects are frequently long deferred and that the final 
effects of causes are frequently startlingly different from 
first effects. This impressive character of induction in 
physiology serves as warning to the reckless and as hope to 
the discouraged. (2) The difficulty of reaching generic 
conclusions unerringly in physiology, and of classifying 
special cases under rules unerringly, because of great varia- 
tion in personal conditions, as already explained, makes the 
proper study of physiology a very valuable training in 
scientific and practical caution. 

History of Physiology 

The purpose of this treatise forbids complete inquiry into 
the history of physiology. In such an inquiry we should 
have to go back as far at least as Hippocrates, and, coming 
up toward the present, we should have to go into the 
triumphs and failures of a great multitude of scientific 
investigators and practitioners. 

Physiology in the Public Schools. — The introduction 
of the study of physiology into the curriculum of the public 
schools was long and violently opposed in many places. 



PHYSIOLOGY 317 

Sometimes prejudice was based on tradition, sometimes on 
economy, sometimes on grounds of modesty, sometimes on 
the supposed uselessness of the study to the masses, and 
sometimes on the assumed inefficiency of teachers. Finally, 
and largely through the Women's Christian Temperance 
Union and its supporters, the study of physiology became 
compulsory in many states. Enforced as it now is by 
\vithholding state appropriations from districts not true to 
the law, redeemed through " free text-books '' from being 
a financial burden, and popularized by the professional 
training of teachers and the removal of other prejudices, 
physiology promises fair to become one of the most effective 
educational means in our public schools. 

Supplementary Reading 

1. N. E. A. Reports, 1869. 

2. Scientific Temperance Instruction in the Public Schools. Foster, 
N. E. A. Report, 1886. 

3. School Hygiene. Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1906. 



CHAPTER XIV 
SINGING 

The Nature of Singing 

Singing, like poetry, is the language of the heart rather 
than the language of the head, but the vocal flights of song 
are more complex than measured verse. On the wings of 
melody and harmony the singer's " oversoul '^ may knock 
at Heaven's gate while the poet waits respectfully below. 
For lack of words the poet may never completely express 
himself, but the singer is more free ; he goes on telling out 
his inmost soul by means of tones that mean much more 
than words. 

Definition. — Singing may be defined as the tuneful vocal 
expression of the beautiful emotions,, but unless we know 
beforehand just what singing is, the definition is a 
sorry failure. To begin with, singing is the vocal expres- 
sion of emotions. This vocal expression of emotions must 
be tuneful or melodious. In other words, it must consist 
of beauty-tones flying or flowing upward, downward, on- 
ward, and in rhythmic swing. The thing to be expressed 
must be some beautiful emotion seeking, hoping, struggling 
to express itself as it could not do in any other way. Joy, 
love, strong desire, faith, hope, and peace — these are in 
the singer's heart. Even grief may sing, but despair and 
hatred have no wings for the flight of song. 

The Subject of Singing 

The materials of singing regarded as the tuneful expres- 
sion of emotions consist of tones, the notation of tones, and 
reading. 

Vocal Tones. — The tones of singing rise and fall; they 
swing along in measured beats ; the voice is freighted with 
318 



SINGING 319 

emotion; other voices may break forth in harmony. Ac- 
cordingly the phases of expression here in question have 
been labelled scale, time and melody, voice and harmony. 

Scale. — (1) A musical scale is a graded system of 
sounds. (2) The octave, consisting of eight definite and 
standard tones, is the most modem scale. In modern Teu- 
tonic music two chief forms of scale are used, the major 
and the minor, the latter having three varieties. (3) The 
major scale progresses by major or whole tones with two 
exceptions, the steps or intervals between the third and 
fourth and the seventh and eighth tones. (4) The minor 
scales begin a half-tone, three half-tones, etc., below the 
major keys. (5) Both major and minor scales are dia- 
tonic, i.e.^ not omitting any tone in the scale. (6) A scale 
in which all the longer steps of a diatonic movement are 
divided — usually into half-tones — is known as a chromatic 
scale. (7) The key of a scale is a standard tone-pitch 
or tone-degree with which the scale movement begins and 
to which all the modulations are referred, as " C natural." 
There are about nine keys or tone-foundations in common 
use, namely, C natural, four keys giving rise to flats, and 
four to sharps. 

Time. — (1) A tone may be sustained for a longer or a 
shorter time. This is known as tone-time. Tone-time is 
measured by pulse or beat. The " quarter note," for ex- 
ample, denotes a tone sustained as long as it takes to say 
" one " in ordinary conversation, and this tone may be 
accepted as the standard tone-time. (2) The measured 
swing which a succession of tones with accents at regular 
intervals acquires is known as rhythm. The succession of 
tones which forms a imit with a rhythmic accent as its basis 
is known as tune-time or measure, as when we speak of 
" three-fourth time." 

Melody. — A rhythmic succession of single tones ranging 
up and down the scale more or less, and pleasing to the ear, 
is known as melody, or tune. The phrasing of a melody 



320 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

is like analysis in grammar, both attempting to exhibit parts 
or portions which are quite distinct and yet conjoined. A 
solo is a melody without support. 

Harmony. — (1) Simultaneous tones that please the ear, 
like bouquets made up of color complements, constitute 
what is known as harmony in music. (2) One pulse of 
simultaneous tones in harmony is called a chord, as do, mi, 
sol, do in the major scale. Chord may follow chord in 
harmony as wave follows wave. Successions of two, three, 
and four toned chords are called respectively duet, trio, 
and quartette. Higher combinations are possible, of course. 
A lower tone on the same octave with the tune-carrying 
" air," or theme-freighted succession of single tones, and 
supporting the theme thus carried is known as alto. The 
theme-supporting tone belonging to the octave just below is 
tenor, and the lower theme-supporting tone of tliis octave 
is the bass. 

Voice. — (1) The voice is the tone produced by means of 
the vocal organs. (2) It may be soprano, alto, tenor, or 
bass by natural pitch. (3) In the language of effects, the 
voice may be light or heavy, smooth or rough, soft or loud, 
firm or weak, dull or ringing, indistinct or distinct, etc. 

Tone Notation. — (1) Tones, including all the details 
of scale, time, melody, harmony, and voice may be repre- 
sented to the eye; this is known as tone-notation. It is to 
singing what the written or the printed page must ever be 
to ordinary speech. Systems of tone-notation vary very 
greatly as to details, but there is very little variation in the 
outline or the skeleton employed. This consists of five 
parallel lines in a horizontal plane and equally distant 
from each other, with convenient space between them, and 
the whole contrivance has been called the " staff." (2) 
As to details the lines and spaces represent the scale rela- 
tions of tones. Short additional lines, known as leger 
lines, must often be employed to represent a wider range of 
tones. The pitch or scale relation of a tone is expressed 



SINGING 321 

on the staff by means of figures, letters, and the well-known 
sol-fa names. Tone-time is expressed by means of charac- 
ters called notes, all of these too familiar to require full 
description in a book on pedagogy. The same thing should 
be true of clefs, time fractions, rhythmic bars, and a host 
of other symbols serving as directions for the voice. 

Reading^. — Tone-thinking and tone-expression according 
to staff directions has long been known as " reading," and 
the term thus used is equivalent to singing guided by the 
eye. Intelligent reading presupposes thorough mastery of 
staff mechanics, tone-imagination, and voice culture. 

The Psychology of Singing 

The mental action in singing resembles that of writing, 
drawing, and other arts in which one sense must be closely 
correlated with another in controlling certain muscles. 

Observation. — In singing and learning to sing we have 
to do with two kinds of facts, namely, tone facts and 
notation facts. 

Tone Facts. — The sense of hearing is the special organ 
of perception in singing. All the facts of scale, time, mel- 
ody, etc., must manifestly be learned through the ear. In 
the imitation of a given tone memory and judgment must 
conspire with the will. To be eloquent in singing, as in 
ordinary speech, the beautiful emotions must be present 
with intensity. We must sing " with feeling " ; the 
" heart " must be in the voice. 

^OTATioJT Facts. — (1) The meaning of the staff in all 
its details can be learned in only one way, and that is by 
simultaneous eye-association with the facts of tone for 
which the details of the staff are made to stand. (2) The 
presentation of a symbol to the eye must of course be 
coupled with explanation, and this will bring judgment, 
reasoning, imagination, and memory to the strong support 
of the ear-eye-perception. 
21 



322 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Induction. — As a convention the staff at once by a sort 
of forced induction, somewhat equivalent to simple memory, 
becomes a rule or law. By means of more and more com- 
plete explanation the staff as a rule or law should be made 
to mean more and more to the singer. 

Habit Building. — Modes of tone production, like any 
other mode of nervo-muscular activity, have a tendency to 
grow into habit long before corrective exercise perfects 
them. This arrest at stages where one ought to move much 
further on is more or less inevitable unless the necessary 
corrective exercise is faithfully undertaken. 

Deduction. — The translation of the staff notation into 
song is a deductive process that may be as simple as the 
recognition of a name, while in complex composition it 
involves most daring flights of tone imagination, strong 
emotion, taste that fails not, faultless courage. 

Habit. — The singer who is freely faithful, absolutely 
loyal to the habits that are best, finds happiness in his art. 

Tlie Physiology of Singing 

The work which the ear, the eye, and the organs of 
speech perform in singing is quite important to the process 
as a whole. 

The Ear. — As already indicated, it is through the ear 
that we judge and will our tones. Defective hearing is 
accordingly a serious handicap. A " good ear," i.e., good 
tone- judgment, is largely the result of opportunity to hear 
good voices long* enough to set a proper standard. The 
opposite result is very common. Inability to " keep a 
tune " appears to be not so much the result of defective hear- 
ing as of weak correlation with imagination, memory, and 
will. Exercise — especially in childhood and through the 
teens — works wonders. 

The Eye. — Reading, i.e., singing guided by the eye, is 
often hard on the eye. The staff in all its details should 



SINGING 323 

be written rather large, and the details should be separated 
far enough to prevent confusion. The words ^' set to 
music " should be near the notes to which they belong. 
The light should be good, and the exercise should cease when 
eye-fatigue begins. 

The Physical Act of Singing. — (1) Unfortunate physi- 
cal conformations are to be deplored. (2) Obstructions in 
the nares or throat should be discovered and removed. 
(3) Strain upon the vocal cords and the walls of the 
throat should never be permitted. (4) The mouth and 
the throat should be freely open. All constriction is serious 
to the health of the parts involved and the musical effects. 
(5) The posture of the body should be upright, and the 
breathing from the diaphragm. (6) The air to be breathed 
should be warm* but not depleted of its natural moisture. 
Cold contracts the vocal muscles; dryness inflames the 
pharynx by friction. 

Courses in Singing 

Genetic adjustment is of first importance. The pleasure 
of the pupil, as we know, is most commonly the key to abil- 
ity and ripeness. Genetic adjustment should, however, not 
overlook the importance of music as a moral means and as 
stimulus in many studies. 

Course for Beginners. — (1) The average child, as 
teachers know, is very fond of nature songs, especially when 
these are suited to the seasons. (2) In the grammar 
grades child-life folk-songs become intensely interesting. 
(3) The child discovers very early in his course that the 
staff is a mental help of considerable value, and commonly 
enjoys the work when correlated with the singing in the 
concrete. 

Work. — (1) The course for beginners in singing should 
begin with simpler melodies in nature songs suited to the 
seasons and combined with nature study. It is in this 
course that the knowing teacher must strive to cumulate 



324 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

apperceptive materials for tone-work and notation. (2) The 
tone-work should begin with the substitution of " sol-fa " 
syllables for words in melodies, but without resorting to 
the staff for half a year or more. Reference to voice- 
perfections, proper breathing, and the like, must accompany 
and constitute a part of the word and sol-fa melodies. 
(3) Skilfully handled, the average class will be ready 
for the staff before the close of the first year ; it will stand 
for something already experienced. Movable " do,'' and 
^^ interval " or jumping exercises, should become frequent 
in the second year. The third and fourth year should lay 
stress on 2-4, 3-4, and 4-4 time. At the close of the 
fourth year the class should know the names of the notes, 
the pitch-names, and a number of important staff symbols. 
Two-part songs and " rounds " may be introduced. (4) 
Listening lessons and distinguishable interval exercises for 
monotones, if there should be such, must of course begin 
as soon as possible. (5) Considerable fluency in sight- 
reading of simpler songs is not too high an aim for the last 
grammar school year. 

The Tufts N^ormal charts and music readers are an ad- 
mirable outline of the course proposed. 

Intermediate Course. — (1) The intermediate course 
should promote school happiness; (2) it should help to 
build the personality of boys and girls in years full of 
possibility for good and evil; (3) it should be brought 
into close relation with the other branches of the school 
curriculum, thus redeeming these from the emotional dis- 
tance which so often alienates the boys and girls from school 
too soon ; and (4) the course should help the boys and girls 
who cannot go to the high school to make their homes and 
friends so much happier, to love their country, and to 
feel at home in religious circles. 

Work. — (1) The folk-songs employed to form the per- 
sonality of boys and girls must be freighted with ideal 
thoughts, and sent to the heart through effective tonality 



SINGING 325 

and rhythm. These folk-songs should consist of the best 
" national airs/' of the best home and friendship songs, of 
the noblest heart-songs tending toward holiness and godli- 
ness. The nations have vied with each other in producing 
admirable folk-songs. Among the foremost contributors 
are Germany, England, Scotland, Poland, Hungary, Bo- 
hemia, Eussia, etc. Excellent collections of such songs and 
hymns have lately come to teachers. (2) The exercises in 
tonality and rhythm should begin to include " intervals " 
that require more and more control of the vocal organs. 
Phrasing should be emphasized. The " moving scale " 
should be brought into play very much. Chromatics and 
the minor scales should be introduced and pushed. Two- 
part and three-part singing should be cultivated more and 
more. The mood-modifying " round '' should be used 
w^henever it is best. The monotones still require special 
care. !N"ote-singing should be coupled with a good deal of 
tone-thinking and fluent sight-reading. Masters like Han- 
del, Mozart, and Bach may be introduced when the class 
reaches the threshold of the high school or of life beyond 
the school-room. All the singing exercises should be made 
as hygienic as they can be made. 

High School Course. — (1) Singing in the high school 
serves as sweet " relief " from stress and strain of mind. 
Beyond all this, the course should be planned for the 
ennoblement of adolescent personality, for richer corre- 
lation with the high school curriculum, and for musical 
power in life. 

WoEK. — To suit the ends in view the high school course 
in singing should include the mastery of staff mechanics and 
sight-reading, coupled with as much work on the masters 
as time may permit and conditions require. 

TEACHING SINGING 

The relation of the tasks to the pupil must determine all 
the methods of instruction. 



326 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Methods with Beginners 

Preparations for the recitation are as necessary as in 
other branches. 

Preparations. — (1) The beginner in singing cannot be 
expected to make any preparations. Even the commit- 
ting of the folk-songs should not be disconnected from the 
recitation period and its helps by the teacher. (2) The 
teacher of beginners must select the folk-songs to suit his 
purposes. He must know both the words and the tune, 
and think out the steps that he would follow in the class- 
room. 

Recitations with Beginners. — Lessons in rote-singing 
come first in the course. 

RoTE-susTGiNG. — (1) The first thing to do is to sing the 
selection for the class. The singing should please the chil- 
dren so much that they will "want to learn it, too." (2) 
The song must then be broken up into so-called " phrases." 
These must be mastered one by one in their right succes- 
sion, the teacher singing them repeatedly, the children re- 
peating what the teacher sings. As soon as it can be safely 
done pupils must be led to sing alone as well as together. 
The monotones should be discovered, but they should not be 
embarrassed. The song to be learned should be sung until 
the children know it well enough to love it. (3) The song 
thus learned should have been selected in connection with 
an interesting nature study lesson, and used afterwards 
again and again where it fits. 

Tone Lessons. — The tone lessons are to be coupled 
almost from the beginning with the rote-singing. (1) 
Good posture must be taught by precept coupled with ex- 
ample. The children should be trained to full-breath sing- 
ing almost from the start. Thinking of a fragrant rose will 
help the class much more than technical directions. The 
teacher should be a pattern of correct enunciation, in which 
event the class will copy him most startlingly without much 
direction. A defective copy is always serious. 



SINGING 327 

Staff-work. — The transition from the worded melody 
of the natnre-songs — and folk-songs — ^learned by rote, to 
the representing staff with its details is most easily accom- 
plished by humming or ooing the melody. Presently, say 
toward the close of the first year, the staff should be intro- 
duced as an eye-help in tone lessons. Tonality and rhythm 
must now be attached to symbols that will guide the mind 
through the eye. Lucid explanations must be coupled with 
the introduction of all symbols. (2) In singing lessons, as 
in drawing, it is necessary to make haste slowly, connecting 
much perfecting practice with each undertaking, but never 
to the point of fatigue. In this practice work figures, 
syllables, and sol-fa names should frequently be substituted 
for each other, thus hastening the transition from the con- 
crete to the abstract, and at the same time interesting the 
class. Rhythm cards, charts, the blackboard, and readers, 
serve as interesting helps. ( 3 ) All conquests both by mind 
and voice should be brought into most direct connections 
with the school-life and the life out of school. 

Monotones. — The monotone is not necessarily a hopeless 
case. As a rule the worst that can be said of the monotone 
in the lower grades is that he is musically tardy. To help 
him most we must make him realize his own deficiency with- 
out embarrassing him or paralyzing all his hopes. Then 
we must teach him to believe that he can leam to sing 
if he will listen much and try hard to sing what we ask him 
to sing. Instead of asking him to sing up and down the 
scale from " do to do," we must get him to hear upper do 
and lower do, and jump from the upper to the lower, and so 
on by intervals more easily distinguished than one degree 
of pitch. The earlier results will probably be far from 
ideal, but if vocal efforts show that he has caught the 
idea, the teacher may know that his pupil will in time be 
almost like his classmates. The monotone should be seated 
where his ear will get the benefit of finer voices, but, to pro- 
tect his weaker classmates from his disconcerting lead he 
must be removed as far as possible from them. 



328 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

Intermediate Methods 

Tlie preparations to be made for every recitation are 
so like the preparations for beginners that we pass them by. 

Intermediate Recitations. — (1) The folk-songs for the 
grammar grades should be correlated with physical cul- 
ture exercises, with biography and history, and especially 
with literature. This singing should become a part of the 
other recitations rather than a long-distance prelude or 
after-lude. 'Not only will the lessons with which such sing- 
ing is associated be the more attractive, but the singing will 
acquire meaning. (2) The more difficult lessons of the 
intermediate course in tonality and rhythm must of course 
be coupled constantly with explanations and illustrations 
to suit the special cases. Minor scales, chromatics, synco- 
pation, rapid time, etc., are most easily taken up in connec- 
tion with an organ, but the instrument must never be 
allowed to weaken mental effort or to take the place of real 
singing. (3) As a stimulus to musical composition 
friendly competition may be called into service. The work 
should usually be done in class, but exceptions to the rule 
should be allowed. 

EEADiisra. — (1) When a lyric suited to gi'ammar grades 
is to be sung, the notes should be sung before the words. 
Easy pieces like the ones learned through notes should 
be sung at sight. (2) In the last two years of the grammar 
school sight-singing should predominate over note-singing 
followed by the words. When the sight-singing pupil en- 
counters special difficulties note-singing must be called into 
service. The sight-singing should not crowd note-singing 
out, for in that event the singer risks too much before he 
should. Individual singing should be used as tests of self- 
dependence and cultural accuracy. 

High School Methods 

High school relations and high school ideals must deter- 
mine high school methods. 



SINGING 329 

Preparations. — (1) The teacher of high school singing 
is in so much daily need of larger scholarship, finished art 
in singing, and in teaching singing, that he dare not take 
a thing for granted. (2) Tone-thinking lessons and com- 
position tasks may be made requirements of home-work for 
high school students. The biography of the masters under- 
taken, or the history of masterpieces, may be assigned for 
home-work and library reference. 

High School Recitations. — The high school recitation 
must lay much stress on fine technic in voice cultivation. 
Sight-reading, coupled with biography and history, forms 
the greater burden of the recitation. The solo, the duet, 
the trio, or quartette should supplement and relieve the 
chorus work. Instrumental accompaniments help to per- 
fect the cultural results. 

The Value of Singing 

Singing rightly taught is a valuable means of culture and 
a splendid gain to life as life. 

Its School Values. — (1) Singing may be so taught as 
to develop finer faculty for sounds, thus adding immensely 
to happiness through music. (2) It necessitates an eye 
and ear conspiracy with imagination, judgment, and will 
that helps mental growth immensely. (3) Ehythm is 
Nature's special keyboard to emotion. This makes music 
a powerful agency in character building and school con- 
trol. (4) The rhythmic culture of music is a vast gain 
to poetry. (5) The connect combination of folk-songs with 
the school curriculum is inspiring. 

Life. — (1) Through hygienic singing both the lungs 
and the vocal organs can be so fortified and perfected 
as to help them ward off serious attacks of cold and 
the like. (2) Singing helps to make "home sweet 
home " ; it sweetens friendship ; it promotes social hearti- 
ness; it fires the heart with patriotic sentiments; it helps 
the young and the old to feel at home in church; it draws 



330 MODERN METHODS FOR TEACHERS 

the soul into the very presence chamber of God and the 
things of God ; it is preeminently " the divine art.'' 

The Training of Teachers. — (1) The supervisor of 
music in the public schools should be able to instruct the 
grade teachers and point out the way in model lessons with 
the grades. Her personality should enrich and sanctify 
her work. Her academic training should, if possible, have 
had its early course in the grades themselves; the special 
school should give her the superior scholarship and culture 
so much needed in her work. The Normal school must 
point the way in methods. (2) The training of the grade 
teachers should, and will in time, make the special super- 
visor quite unnecessary except in cities, and there she will 
occupy a place somewhat like the place of the supervising 
principal. 

History of Singing 

The history of singing begins with the history of man. 

National History — (1) In ancient Egypt and Israel 
singing was employed as the handmaid of religion, palace- 
joys, social entertainment, etc. (2) "With the beauty- 
loving Greeks singing was a passion and a fine art. Lyric 
IDoetry was extensively produced and sung. They attained 
to great perfections in the technic of tonality and rhythm. 
In its content Greek song is patriotic and religious. (3) 
The Koman sang his war songs, and religious strains, but 
failed to contribute much. (4) The monastic life empha- 
sized the stately chant. (5) The sixteenth century relig- 
ious Heformation embodied religious teachings and religious 
feelings into a multitude of immortal hymns. As a crown- 
ing glory of religious fervor it produced most perfect ora- 
torios. (6) The modern nations, chief among them the 
Germans, are upon the verge of a great revival in the holy 
art of song. 

In the School Curriculum. — (1) All the educational 
systems of the past paid more or less attention to singing 
in the schools. The Greek philosophers believed that har- 



SINGING 331 

mony was the very higliest thing in life. (2) The Roman 
patrician of the Goklen Age followed in the steps of Greece. 
(3) Singing was the queen of the mediaeval " seven liberal 
arts." The knights vied with the monks in their passionate 
devotion to music. (4) The educational reformers valued 
singing very much in home-life, church, and school. (5) 
The foremost nations of modem Europe have not only given 
singing to the schools for the masses, but they make it com- 
pulsory. (6) The day is coming very rapidly when 
America will follow Europe. 

Pedagogical Progress. — (1) Eor many centuries the 
school teacher trained in singing and the art of teaching 
singing was a rarity. (2) The up-to-date city of to-day 
employs specially trained supervisors, but finds it difficult 
to secure grade teachers trained well enough to win profes- 
sional success in teaching singing. (3) The E'ormal 
schools are now attempting to train teachers in the art of 
singing and its pedagogy. The day is rapidly coming when 
the grade teacher must qualify himself in singing as he 
does in any other branch of the school curriculum. 

Supplementary Reading. 

1. N. E. A. Reports: 1904, pages 678-708; 1905, pages 630-668. 

2. Painter's History of Education. 

3. Compayre's History of Pedagogy. 

4. Pedagogical kSeminary, April, 1900. 



APPENDIX 

REFERENCE BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL 
READING 



APPENDIX 

REFERENCE BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING 

Mind 

1. The Growth of the Brain. Donaldson. 

2. The Human Mind and Its Physical Basis. Deatrick. 

3. Thinking, Feeling, Doing. Scripture. 

4. Mental Faculty. Warner. 

5. The New Psychology. Scripture. 

6. A Primer of Psychology. Titchener. 

7. Genetic Psychology for Teachers. Judd. 

8. The Psychology of Thinking. Miller. 

9. Psychology in Education. Roark. 

10, The Fundamentals of Child Study. Kirkpatrick. 

11, The Development of the Child. Oppenheim. 

12, Adolescence. Hall. 

Body 

1. The Study of Children. Warner. 

2. The Physical Nature of the Child. Rowe. 

3. School Hygiene. Shaw. 

4. School Hygiene. Kotelman. 

5. The Care of the Child in Health. Oppenheim. 

Principles of Teaching 

1. The Meaning of Education. Butler. 

2. Education as Adjustment. O'Shea. 

3. The Educational Process. Fleshman. 

4. The Educative Process. Bagley. 

5. The Philosophy of Education. Home. 

6. Philosophy of Education. Rosenkranz. 

7. Education. Spencer. 

8. Physical Education. Maclaren. 

9. Moral Training in the Public Schools. Prize Essays. 

10. The Principles of Religious Education. Butler. 

11. Social Phases of Education. Dutton. 

12. Industrial Education. Magnus. 

13. Interest in Education. DeGarmo. 

335 



336 APPENDIX 

14. The Child and the Curriculum. Dewey. 

15. General Method. McMurry. 

16. The Essentials of Method. DeGarmo. 

17. Principles of Teaching. Thorndike. 

18. Common Sense Didactics. Sabin. 

19. The Recitation. Hamilton. 

Agriculture 

1. Agriculture for Beginners. Burkett, etc. 

2. The Rural Science Series. Bailey. 

3. Principles of Soil Management. Lyon and Fippin. 

4. The Physiology of Plant Production. Duggar. 

5. A Primer of Forestry. Pinchot. 

6. Insects Injurious to Fruits. Saunders. 

7. Fruit Insects. Slingerland. 

8. Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. Lipman. 

9. Modern Methods of Sewage Disposal. Waring. 

10. The Drainage of Habitable Buildings. Beardmore. 

11. Heating, Lighting, Ventilating. 

12. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. Bailey. 

Arithmetic 

1. Psychology of Number. Dewey. 

2. The Teaching of Elementary Arithmetic. Smith. 

3. The Grube Method of Arithmetic. Seeley. 

4. Number Work in Nature Study. Jackman. 

5. The Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools. Young. 

6. The Philosophy of Arithmetic. Brooks. 

7. Lippincott's Practical Arithmetic. 

Composition 

1. Language Lessons. Barnes. 

2. Practical Lessons in Language. Conklin. 

3. Hand-Book of Punctuation. Turner. 

4. How to Write English. Reade. 

5. How to Write Clearly. Ahlott. 

6. Analysis of Letter-Writing. Townsend. 

7. The Teaching of English. Carpenter. 

8. Nature of Poetry. Stedman. 

9. Hand-Book of Poetics. Oummere. 
10. Primer of English Verse. Corson. 



APPENDIX 337 

11. Shorter History of English Literature. Saintshury. 

12. English Poets. Ward. 

13. English Literature. Tenhrinks. 

14. Lessons in Language. Patrick. 

Drawing 

1. Practice Books. Augsburg. 

2. Drawing Books, No. I, II, and III. Augsburg. 

3. The Parallel Course (4 books). 

4. System of Drawing. White. 

5. Mechanical Drawing. Cross. 

6. Text Books of Art Education (8 books). 

7. Art Education for High Schools. 

Geography 

1. Special Method in Geography. McMurry. 

2. Teachers' Manual of Greography. Frye. 

3. Teachers' Manual of Geography. Bedway. 

4. Brooks and Brook Basins. Frye. 

5. The Child and Nature. Frye. 

6. Geographical Studies. Bitter. 

7. Comparative Geography. Bitter. 

8. Field, Laboratory, and Library Manual of Physical Geography. 

Wright. 

9. How to Study Geography. Parker. 
10. Lippincott's Gazetteer of the World. 

Grammar 

1. Essentials of English Grammar. Whitney. 

2. Principles of English Grammer. Carpenter. 

3. Grammar Land. Nesbitt. 

4. The English Language. Meiklejohn. 

5. History of English. Champney. 

6. Principles of English Grammar. Patrick. 

7. Lessons in Grammer. Patrick. 

History 

1. The Teaching of History and Civics. Bourne. 

2. Special Method in History. McMurry. 

3. How to Study and Teach History. Hinsdale. 

22 



338 APPENDIX 

4. Method in History. Mace. 

5. Methods of Teaching and Studying History. Hall. 

6. Methods of Historical Study. Freeman. 

7. History of Civilization. Guizot. 

8. Documentary Source-book of American History. MacDonald. 

9. The United States as a World Power. CooUdge. 

10. American Indians. Starr. 

11. Stories of Pennsylvania. Brumbaugh. 

12. Two Centuries of Pennsylvania History. Sharpless, 

13. Historical Tales. Morris. 

14. " The Government of the United States and of the State of Penn- 

sylvania.'* Gruher. 

15. Schwinn & Stevenson's Civil Government. 

Manual Training 

1. First Lessons in Wood-Working. Compton. 

2. Elementary Wood- Work. Kilhon. 

3. Knife Work in the School Room. Kilion. 

4. Wood- Work in the Common School. Hinckley. 

5. The Sloyd System of Wood- Work. Hoffman. 

6. How to Use Wood-Working Tools. Whitaker. 

7. Educational Value of Manual Training. Woodward. 

8. Industrial Instruction. Seidel. 

9. Beginnings in Industrial Education. Hanus. 
10. Manual Training. Ham. 

Mental Culture 

1. The Dogma of Formal Discipline. Hinsdale. 

2. Exercises in Mind Training. Aiken. 

3. Assimilative Memory. Loisette. 

4. The Art of Study. Hinsdale. 

5. Thinking and Learning to Think. Schaeffer. 

6. Habit in Education. Radestock. 

7. Self-Culture. Blackie. 

8. The Making of Character. MacGunn. 

Object Lessons 

1. Child's Book of Nature. Hooker. 

2. Natural History Object Lessons. Ricks. 

3. Common Minerals and Rocks. Grosky. 

4. Color in the School-Room. Bradley. 



APPENDIX 339 

5. Primer of Scientific Knowledge. Bert, 

6. The Nature-Study Idea. Bailey. 

7. Nature Study and Life. Hodge. 

8. Nature Study for Common Schools. Jackman. 

0. The Teaching of Biology. Lloyd and Bigelow. 
10. Nature Study and Life. Hodge. 

IL The Study of Nature. Schmucker. 
12. Nature Study. Holtz. 

Physical Culture 

1. Physical Culture for the School-Room. Preece. 

2. Manual of School Gymnastics. Smart. 

3. Americanized Delsarte Culture. Bishop. 

4. Seventy Years Young. Bishop. 

5. Health Lessons. Walker. 

6. How to Get Strong. Blaikie. 

Physiology 

1. How to Teach Physiology. Blaisdell. 

2. Hints for Teachers of Physiology. Boioditch. 

3. Physiology for the Laboratory. Broum. 

4. The Story of the Bacteria. Prudden. 

5. Dust and its Dangers. Prudden. 

6. The Soil in its Relation to Health. Miers and Crosky. 

Reading 

1. The Sentence Method of Teaching Reading. Farnham. 

2. Rational Method of Reading. Ward. 

3. Manual of Synthetic Reading. Pollard. 

4. How to Teach Reading. Hall. 

5. Special Method in Primary Reading. McMurry. 

6. Reading as a Fine Art. Legouve. 

7. Children's Classics in Dramatic Form. Stevenson. 

8. School Libraries. 

9. Mastery of Books. Eoopman. 

10. Worcester's Comprehensive or Academic Dictionary. 

Singing 

1. Educational Music Course. Mason. 

2. Normal Course of Music in the School Room. Lyman. 

3. Teachers' Manual of Music. Tufts and Holt. 



340 APPENDIX 

4. Hand-Book on the Art of Teaching Music. Warriner. 

5. The Psychology of Singing. Taylor. 

Spelling 

1. Powers' Graded Speller. 

2. The Bailey-Manly Spelling Book. 

3. Advanced Speller. Pollard. 

4. Scientific Alphabet. Van De Venter. 

5. The Orthoepist. Alfred Ayres. 

6. Spelling in the Elementary School. Cornman. 

Writing 

1. Theory of Penmanship. Spencer. 

2. Vertical Edition of Spencerian Penmanship. 

3. Vertical Penmanship. Merrill. 

4. How to Teach Writing. Appleton, 

5. The Business Educator. Zaner and Bloser. 

C. Handwriting and How to Teach It. Gordon. 



INDEX 



Agbiculture 296-310 

Animal production, 297; courses in agriculture, 301-303; 
farm economics, 298; farm mechanics, 298; financial problem, 
308; grammar school methods, 304, 305; high school methods, 
306; history of agriculture, 309; methods with beginners, 
303, 304; nature of agriculture, 296; plant production, 296; 
psychology of agriculture, 299; teachers, 300; teaching agri- 
culture, 300-300; value of agriculture, 306, 307. 

Arithmetic 204-234 

Advanced arithmetic, 228; assigning problems, 226; be- 
ginners in arithmetic, 210-225; board work, 224, 226; bor- 
rowing, 213; carrying, 212; counting, 204; courses in 
arithmetic, 208, 209; decimals, 222; division, 216; exercises, 
206; fundamental operations, 205; general truths, 206, 227; 
Grube lessons, 212; history of arithmetic, 232; intermediate 
arithmetic, 225-228; mental arithmetic, 228-231; notation, 
205, 211, 217; numbers, 204; numeration, 205, 217; objects 
of recitation, 210; preparations, 210, 225; psychology of 
arithmetic, 206-208; recitations illustrated, 210, 225; six 
divided by one-third, 221; speed drills, 216; tables, 206, 
214; teachers, 210, 232; teaching arithmetic, 209-231; terms 
of a fraction, 218; 3.1416 lesson, 223; two-thirds of twelve, 
219; two-thirds of five-sevenths, 220; two-thirds equals 
four-sixths, 219; value of arithmetic, 231, 232; weights and 
measures, 222, 223. 

Composition 159-177 

Advanced composition, 174; composition day, 175; courses 
in composition, 168; criticisms, 171, 175; figures of rheto- 
ric, 165; formal composition, 169, 174; gathering materials, 
161, 172; history of composition writing, 176, 177; inter- 
esting start, 169; kinds of composition, 159; language les- 
sons, 168, 169-171; letter writing, 171; mechanical per- 
fections, 166, 167; outline rules, 160, 172; paragraphs, 164, 
165; parts of a composition, 166; selecting subjects, 160, 

341 



342 INDEX 

Composition — Contimied 

171; style, 173; trained teachers, 176; value of composition 
work, 175, 176; vocabulary, 162, 163, 173; word hunts, 170; 
writing mood, 174. 

Dbawing 266-281 

Body positions, 269; courses in drawing, 270-272; cylin- 
der lesson, 277, 278; drawing from the object drawn, 276; 
drawing from the object studied, 276; high school methods, 
278, 279; history of drawing, 280, 281; intermediate methods, 
274, 275; Johnny and the Red Wing, 274; map-drawing, 
276; material equipment, 272; methods with beginners, 272, 
273; movements, 269; nature of drawing, 266; pencil hold- 
ing, 269; perspective, 277; physiology of drawing, 268, 269; 
practice, 270; preparations, 273, 274; psychology of draw- 
ing, 267, 268; pupil's eye, 269; recitations with beginners, 
273; teaching drawing, 272-279; value of drawing, 279, 280. 

Geography 234-254 

Advanced geography, 248-250; animal friends, 241; board 
work, 247; courses in geography, 236-239; day and night, 
244; directions, 242; excursions, 246; history of geography, 
251-253; intermediate geography, 246; map-drawing, 247; 
map-drills, 248 ; meaning of maps, 243 ; nature of geography, 
234; neighbors and friends, 241; ocean storm, 242; oral 
work, 248; plant friends, 241; preparations, 239, 246; 
psychology of geography, 235, 236; recitations with begin- 
ners, 240; relation to sciences, 234; seasons, 245; shape 
of earth, 244; supplementary reading, 247; teachers of 
geography, 250; teaching geography, 239-250; value of 
geography, 250. 

Grammar 178-203 

Advanced analysis, 195, 196; advanced grammar, 182; ad- 
vanced parsing, 194, 195; advanced syntax, 197; analysis 
for beginners, 193; book-grammar classes, 194, 199; courses 
in grammar, 180-182; elementary lessons illustrated, 182- 
192; genesis of grammar, 201; history of grammar, 201; 
intermediate grammar, 181; nature of grammar, 178; pars- 
ing for beginners, 192; preparations, 198, 199; psychology 



INDEX S43 

Grammar — Continued 

of grammar, 178-180; recitations, 199; relation of parsing 
to analysis, 197; reputation of grammar, 203; syntax, 194; 
ralue of grammar, 200, 201; writers of grammar, 202. 

History 254-265 

Book classes, 259; courses in history, 257-258; history of 
history, 264, 265; methods with beginners, 258; nature of 
history, 254; preparations, 258, 260; psychology of history, 
255, 256; recitations, 259, 261; teachers of history, 263; 
teaching history, 257-262; theories of history, 256; value 
of history, 262, 263. 

Manual Training 282-295 

Courses in manual training, 285-287; expenses, 292; eyes, 
284; high school methods, 290; history of manual training, 
293-295; injuries from tools, 284; intermediate methods, 
289; material equipment, 287; methods with beginners, 288; 
nature of manual training, 282; physiology of manual train- 
ing, 284; posture and movement, 284; psychology of man- 
ual training, 283; room, 287; teachers of manual training, 
292; teaching manual training, 288-291; tools, 288; value 
of manual training, 291, 292. 

Object Lessons 83-99 

Color, 90-96; courses of object lessons, 85; form, 88-90; 
history of object lessons, 84; method of object lessons, 83; 
nature study, 96-99; parts of objects, 85-87; purposes of 
object lessons, 84; qualities, 87-88. 

1. Color 90-96 

i^nalysis of color compounds, 92; broken colors, 93; color- 
blindness, 90; color complements, 92; color harmonies, 93; 
color scales, 93; courses of lessons, 90; language of colors, 
90; matching colors, 90; method of color lessons, 94; mixing 
colors, 91; preparations for color lessons, 94; recitations 
of color lessons, 95; solar spectrum, 91; standard colors, 93. 

2. Form 88-90 

Course of lessons, 88; method of form lessons, 89; value 
of form lessons, 89. ^ 



344 INDEX 

3. 'Nature Study 96-99 

Course, 96; history, 98; method, 97; value, 98. 

4. Parts of Objects 85-87 

Course, 85; method, 86; value, 86. 

5. Qualities of Objects 87-88 

Course, 87; method, 87; value, 88. 

Physical Culture .,. 69-80 

Physiology 311-317 

Courses in physiology, 312, 313; economic adaptations in 
lessons, 315; history of physiology, 316, 317; lesson prepa- 
rations, 315; nature of physiology, 311; psychological adap- 
tations in lessons, 313, 315; recitations, 315, 316; selection 
of subject matter, 311; teaching physiologj% 313; value of 
physiology, 316. 

Reading 100-120 

ABC method, 105; alphabetic names, 117; beginners, 
105; comprehension, 102; courses in reading, 104, 105; drills, 
118; enunciation, 100; expression, 102; Gordon method, 110; 
history of reading, 120; libraries, 118; lisping, 117; nature 
of reading, 100; phonic method, 107; phonetic method, 100; 
Pollard method, 108; preparations for recitations, 114, 115; 
pronunciation, 101; psychology of reading, 104; reading as 
a subject, 100; recitations in reading, 115-117; sentence 
method, 109; stammering, 118; syllabification, 101; value of 
reading, 119; Ward method, 111-114; word method, 109. 

Singing 318-331 

Courses in singing, 323-325; ear. 322; eye, 322; harmony, 
320; high school methods, 328; history of singing, 330, 
331; intermediate methods, 328; melody, 319; methods with 
beginners, 326; monotones, 327; nature of singing, 318; 
notation, 320, 321; physiology of singing, 322, 323; psychol- 
ogy of singing, 321, 322; reading, 321; rote singing, 326; 
scale, 319; staff work, 327; teachers of singing, 330; teaching 
singing, 325-330; time, 319; tones, 318; tone lessons, 326; 
value of singing, 330, 331; voice, 320. 



INDEX 345 

Spelling 136-158 

Accidents, 154; arbitrary orthography, 136; assignment 
of lessons, 139; beginners, 139; composite language, 154; 
correction of misspelled words, 148; dictionaries, 155; Eng- 
lish alphabet, 153; getting ready for written spelling, 147; 
giving out words, 145, 146, 148; history of spelling, 153; 
learning a word, 141, 142; matches, 149-151; nature of spell- 
ing, 136; next lesson, 140, 146; object of spelling, 137; 
oral spelling, 143-145; preparations for recitation, 141; 
psychology of spelling, 137, 138; recitations in spelling, 149; 
reforms in spelling, 155; reviews in spelling, 149; rules of 
spelling, 136, 137, 151; simplified spelling, 156-158; spell- 
ing book course, 140; spelling a word orally, 146; teachers 
of spelling, 153; teaching spelling, 138-152; value of spell- 
ing, 152; writing words in spelling, 148; written spelling, 
143-145. 

Writing 121-135 

Beginners, 131; copy book classes, 131, 132; courses in 
writing, 129; history of writing, 134, 135; ideals, 122, 
123; left-handedness, 125, 126; letters, 121; linear elements of 
letters, 121, 122; movements in writing, 124-127; pen-holding, 
125; recitations in writing, 130; sitting when writing, 124; 
standing when writing, 124; styles of writing, 127, 134; 
teachers of writing, 134; teaching writing, 130-133; vertical 
writing, 128, 129; value of training in writing, 133; writing 
as a subject, 121, 









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